Cell Structure

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レッスンノート

The Cell Theory

Cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of life.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
This unifying theory underpins our understanding of structure, function, and continuity in living organisms.

Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

Cell-surface membrane: controls substance entry/exit; composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Nucleus: contains linear DNA (protein-bound as chromosomes); nucleolus produces ribosomes.
Mitochondria: site of aerobic respiration and ATP production.
Chloroplasts: site of photosynthesis (in plants/algae); contain chlorophyll.
Golgi apparatus: modifies and packages proteins and lipids; forms vesicles e.g. lysosomes.
Lysosomes: vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for digesting worn-out organelles or pathogens.
Endoplasmic reticulum: Rough ER (ribosome-covered) synthesises and transports proteins; Smooth ER synthesises and stores lipids and carbohydrates.
Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis; 80S in eukaryotes and 70S in prokaryotes.

Additional Eukaryotic Structures

Cell wall: provides strength/support; made from cellulose in plants and chitin in fungi.
Vacuole: stores cell sap (in plants); helps maintain cell pressure and structure.

Specialisation of Eukaryotic Cells

In multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become specialised to perform specific functions.
Their structure is adapted to their role, which explains why different cell types can look very different.
Structural adaptations may include cell shape and the presence or absence of specific organelles.
Red blood cells are biconcave and lack a nucleus, creating more space for oxygen transport.
Protein-producing cells contain many ribosomes to support high levels of protein synthesis.

Examples of Specialised Eukaryotic Cells

Neurones (nerve cells): function is conduction of nerve impulses; cell body contains most organelles and is the site of protein synthesis; dendrites receive signals, axons transmit them; long axon (up to 1m) enables fast, long-distance transmission; myelin sheath insulates axon and increases speed of impulse conduction.
Muscle cells: function is contraction for movement; three types in animals: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac; protein filaments (actin and myosin) slide over each other to cause contraction; high density of mitochondria for ATP production via respiration; skeletal muscle cells fuse during development to form multinucleated fibres.
Sperm cells: function is fertilisation of the egg and delivery of the father's DNA; head contains haploid nucleus; acrosome contains digestive enzymes to penetrate the egg; mid-piece packed with mitochondria to provide energy for movement; tail rotates to propel the sperm towards the egg.
Root hair cells: function is absorption of water and mineral ions from the soil; root hair increases surface area to maximise absorption; thin cell wall reduces diffusion distance; vacuole contains concentrated cell sap to maintain a water potential gradient; mitochondria provide ATP for active transport of mineral ions; no chloroplasts as they are found underground and not exposed to light.
Xylem vessel cells: function is transport of water and dissolved mineral ions; no end walls between cells forming a continuous tube; cells are dead and lack organelles for unimpeded water flow; walls thickened with lignin for strength and structural support.
Phloem vessel cells: function is transport of sugars and amino acids (translocation); living cells joined end-to-end with sieve plates for solute flow; few subcellular structures to aid transport; companion cells provide ATP and regulate transport processes.

Eukaryotic Cell Organisation

In multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become specialised to carry out specific functions, e.g. epithelial cells in the small intestine absorb nutrients; red blood cells transport oxygen.
Specialised cells of the same type form a tissue; a group of similar cells working together, e.g. epithelial tissue absorbs food in the small intestine; muscle tissue contracts to produce movement.
Tissues combine to form an organ, e.g. the heart contains muscle, connective and vascular tissues.
Organs work together as part of an organ system, e.g. the heart is part of the circulatory system.
Levels of organisation: cell → tissue → organ → organ system.
Examples: epithelial cell → epithelial tissue → stomach → digestive system; muscle cell → muscle tissue → bladder → urinary system; neurones (nerve cells) → nervous tissue → brain → central nervous system; rod and cone cells → retina (nervous tissue) → eye → visual system.

Structure of Prokaryotic Cells

Animal and plant cells are types of eukaryotic cells, whereas bacteria are a type of prokaryote.
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells.
They have a cytoplasm that lacks membrane-bound organelles.
They have smaller, 70S ribosomes (in comparison to 80S ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells).
They have no nucleus; instead, they have a single circular DNA molecule that is free in the cytoplasm and is not associated with proteins.
They have a cell wall that contains murein.
Additional structures in some prokaryotic cells: plasmids (small, circular loops of DNA; carry non-essential genes e.g. antibiotic resistance; can be transferred between prokaryotes); capsule (slime capsule; protective outer layer; prevents desiccation and helps evade immune system attack); flagella (singular: flagellum; long, rotating tail for motility; some bacteria have multiple flagella).

Prokaryotic v Eukaryotic Cells

Size: Prokaryotes 0.5–5 μm diameter; Eukaryotes up to 100 μm diameter.
Genome: Prokaryotes have circular DNA with no proteins, in the cytoplasm; Eukaryotes have DNA associated with histones (proteins), forming chromosomes.
Cell division: Prokaryotes occur by binary fission, no spindle involved; Eukaryotes occur by mitosis or meiosis and involve a spindle to separate chromosomes.
Ribosomes: Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes; Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes.
Organelles: Prokaryotes have very few, no membrane-bound organelles; Eukaryotes have numerous types of membrane-bound organelles. Single membranes: lysosomes, Golgi complex, vacuoles. Double membranes: nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplast. No membrane: ribosomes, centrioles, microtubules.
Cell wall: Prokaryotes made of peptidoglycan (polysaccharide and amino acids) and murein; Eukaryotes present in plants (made of cellulose or lignin) and fungi (made of chitin, similar to cellulose but containing nitrogen).

Viruses

Viruses are non-living because they are non-cellular; cannot reproduce independently (they require a host); do not grow or respond to stimuli; do not carry out protein synthesis (they use the protein-building machinery in host cells).
They have no metabolic activity.
All viruses are parasitic.
They are much smaller than prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Structurally they have: genetic material (either DNA or RNA, and can be single or double-stranded); a capsid (a protein coat surrounding genetic material and containing attachment proteins); attachment proteins (these bind to receptors on host cells during invasion).

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練習問題

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1.Which of the following is NOT a statement of the cell theory?
Easy
- AAll living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
- BThe cell is the basic unit of life.
- CAll cells arise from pre-existing cells.
- DAll cells possess a nucleus.
2.Which organelle is the site of aerobic respiration and ATP production?
Easy
- AMitochondrion
- BChloroplast
- CRibosome
- DGolgi apparatus
3.Which of the following correctly describes the structure of the cell surface membrane?
Easy
- AA phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
- BA cellulose wall with pores
- CA single layer of phospholipids with carbohydrates
- DA protein coat surrounding genetic material
4.Which of the following is a function of the lysosome?
Medium
- ADigesting worn-out organelles or pathogens using hydrolytic enzymes
- BSynthesising proteins
- CModifying and packaging proteins and lipids
- DStoring cell sap
5.Which of the following structures is found in a prokaryotic cell but NOT in a eukaryotic cell?
Medium
- APlasmid
- BMitochondrion
- CNucleus
- DGolgi apparatus
6.A prokaryotic cell measures 2 μm in diameter and a eukaryotic cell measures 0.1 mm. How many times larger is the eukaryotic cell than the prokaryotic cell?
Medium
- A50
- B5
- C500
- D0.05
7.Which of the following is the correct definition of a tissue?
Easy
- AA group of similar cells working together to carry out a specific function
- BA group of different tissues working together to carry out a specific function
- CA single specialised cell
- DA group of organs working together
8.Which of the following is a feature of viruses?
Medium
- AThey possess a capsid made of protein
- BThey have 70S ribosomes
- CThey contain circular DNA associated with histones
- DThey can reproduce independently

もっと問題

9.Prokaryotic cells contain 80S ribosomes.
Easy
True or false?
10.The cell wall of a prokaryotic cell is made of murein.
Easy
True or false?
11.Viruses are living organisms because they can reproduce independently.
Easy
True or false?
12.Which of the following are functions of the Golgi apparatus? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AModifying proteins
- BPackaging proteins
- CForming vesicles such as lysosomes
- DSynthesising proteins
- EProducing ATP
13.Which of the following are adaptations of a sperm cell? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AAcrosome containing digestive enzymes
- BMid-piece packed with mitochondria
- CTail for propulsion
- DHaploid nucleus
- ELarge numbers of chloroplasts
14.Which of the following statements about prokaryotic cells are correct? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AThey have circular DNA that is not associated with proteins.
- BThey have 70S ribosomes.
- CThey have a nucleus.
- DThey have membrane-bound organelles.
- EThey divide by binary fission.
15.Match each organelle with its correct function.
Medium
- Mitochondrion
- Chloroplast
- Ribosome
- Golgi apparatus
- Site of protein synthesis
- Modifies and packages proteins and lipids
- Site of aerobic respiration and ATP production
- Site of photosynthesis
16.Place the following levels of cellular organisation in order from smallest to largest.
Medium
- Cell
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ system
17.A scientist used the method below to prepare a sample of mitochondria from muscle cells: 1. Place muscle tissue in a solution that is ice-cold, buffered and has the same water potential as the muscle tissue. 2. Place the muscle tissue and solution into a blender; blend for 3 minutes. 3. Filter the blended mixture. 4. Centrifuge the filtrate at a low speed; a pellet should be seen at the bottom of the centrifuge tube. 5. Pour off the liquid from the first centrifuge tube into a second centrifuge tube. 6. Centrifuge this liquid at a high speed; the pellet that forms contains mitochondria. Explain why the solution used in step 1 had to be ice-cold.
Hard
- ATo reduce enzyme activity that might break down the organelles
- BTo increase the rate of respiration
- CTo prevent the organelles from freezing
- DTo maintain the pH of the solution
18.A scientist used the method below to prepare a sample of mitochondria from muscle cells: 1. Place muscle tissue in a solution that is ice-cold, buffered and has the same water potential as the muscle tissue. 2. Place the muscle tissue and solution into a blender; blend for 3 minutes. 3. Filter the blended mixture. 4. Centrifuge the filtrate at a low speed; a pellet should be seen at the bottom of the centrifuge tube. 5. Pour off the liquid from the first centrifuge tube into a second centrifuge tube. 6. Centrifuge this liquid at a high speed; the pellet that forms contains mitochondria. Explain why the muscle tissue and solution first had to be blended, and why the resulting mixture then had to be filtered (steps 2 and 3).
Hard
- ABlending breaks open the cells to release organelles; filtering removes large debris and unbroken cells.
- BBlending separates organelles by size; filtering removes soluble enzymes.
- CBlending homogenises the tissue; filtering sterilises the sample.
- DBlending increases the concentration of organelles; filtering removes excess buffer.
19.Which of the following best explains why viruses are considered non-living?
Hard
- AThey cannot reproduce independently and have no metabolic activity.
- BThey contain genetic material.
- CThey are much smaller than prokaryotic cells.
- DThey can infect host cells.
20.Which of the following correctly describes the genetic material of a virus?
Hard
- AEither DNA or RNA, and can be single or double-stranded
- BAlways DNA, circular and associated with histones
- CAlways RNA, single-stranded
- DDNA and RNA together in a protein coat
21.Some virus particles have an additional layer of molecules surrounding them in addition to the capsid. Where does this additional layer come from?
Challenge
- AFrom the host cell membrane when the virus leaves the host cell
- BFrom the viral capsid proteins
- CFrom the host cell wall
- DFrom the viral genetic material
22.Which of the following structures are found in a plant cell but NOT in an animal cell? (select all that apply)
Hard
- AChloroplast
- BCell wall
- CLarge permanent vacuole
- DMitochondrion
- ECentriole
23.Which of the following are adaptations of xylem vessel cells? (select all that apply)
Hard
- ANo end walls between cells
- BDead cells lacking organelles
- CWalls thickened with lignin
- DCompanion cells providing ATP
- ESieve plates
24.The rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes and is responsible for the synthesis and transport of proteins.
Medium
True or false?
25.The nucleolus produces ribosomes.
Medium
True or false?
26.Match each specialised cell with its function.
Medium
- Sperm cell
- Root hair cell
- Xylem vessel cell
- Phloem vessel cell
- Neurone
- Conduction of nerve impulses
- Transport of sugars and amino acids
- Fertilisation of the egg and delivery of the father's DNA
- Transport of water and dissolved mineral ions
- Absorption of water and mineral ions from the soil
27.Place the levels of cellular organisation in order from smallest to largest.
Easy
- Specialised cell
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ system
28.Which of the following statements about viruses are correct? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AViruses contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
- BViruses can reproduce independently without a host cell.
- CViruses have a protein coat called a capsid.
- DViruses carry out protein synthesis using their own ribosomes.
- EAttachment proteins on viruses bind to receptors on host cells.
29.Which of the following are adaptations of a neurone? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ALong axon up to 1 m
- BMyelin sheath around the axon
- CNumerous chloroplasts
- DDendrites that receive signals
- EAcrosome containing digestive enzymes
30.Which of the following are functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ASynthesis of proteins
- BTransport of proteins
- CSynthesis and storage of lipids
- DProduction of ATP
- EDigestion of worn-out organelles
31.Which of the following are adaptations of a root hair cell? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ARoot hair increases surface area
- BThin cell wall reduces diffusion distance
- CContains many chloroplasts
- DVacuole contains concentrated cell sap
- EMitochondria provide ATP for active transport
32.Viruses are non-living because they cannot reproduce independently.
Easy
True or false?
33.The cell wall of a prokaryotic cell is made of cellulose.
Easy
True or false?
34.Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes.
Easy
True or false?
35.Why is the solution used in step 1 ice-cold?
Medium
- ATo increase the activity of enzymes
- BTo reduce enzyme activity and prevent digestion of organelles
- CTo increase the rate of respiration
- DTo make the solution more concentrated
36.Why does the solution in step 1 have the same water potential as the muscle tissue?
Medium
- ATo prevent osmosis causing organelles to shrink or burst
- BTo allow water to enter the organelles
- CTo increase the rate of diffusion
- DTo make the organelles easier to see
37.Why is the mixture blended and then filtered?
Medium
- ATo break open cells and remove large debris
- BTo increase the temperature of the sample
- CTo separate mitochondria from other organelles
- DTo dissolve the cell membranes
38.Place the following steps of cell fractionation in the correct order.
Medium
- Centrifuge at high speed to pellet mitochondria
- Place tissue in ice-cold, buffered, isotonic solution
- Filter the blended mixture
- Blend the tissue
- Centrifuge at low speed to remove nuclei and debris
39.The Golgi apparatus modifies and packages proteins and lipids.
Easy
True or false?
40.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes.
Easy
True or false?
41.Name the process by which prokaryotic cells divide.
Easy
42.Name the structure that surrounds the genetic material of a virus.
Easy
43.Give the name of the organelle that is the site of protein synthesis.
Easy
44.A prokaryotic cell measures 2 μm in diameter and a eukaryotic cell measures 0.1 mm. Calculate how many times larger the eukaryotic cell is than the prokaryotic cell.
Medium
45.In certain conditions some prokaryotic cells can divide every 25 minutes. Assuming that each cell divides every 25 minutes, calculate the number of cells that will be present after 3.75 hours if the starting population contains 2.45 × 10³ cells. Assume that no cells die during this time.
Medium
46.Complete the sentence about the cell surface membrane.
Medium
The cell surface membrane controls the ____ of substances into and out of the cell.
47.Complete the sentence about the nucleus.
Medium
The nucleus contains linear DNA that is bound to proteins to form ____.
48.Complete the table comparing prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Write the missing values.
Medium
Prokaryotic cells have ____ ribosomes, while eukaryotic cells have ____ ribosomes.
49.Complete the sentence about the cell wall.
Medium
The cell wall provides ____ and support to the cell.
50.In certain conditions some prokaryotic cells can divide every 25 minutes. Assuming that each cell divides every 25 minutes, calculate the number of cells that will be present after 3.75 hours if the starting population contains 2.45 × 10³ cells. Assume that no cells die during this time.
Hard
51.Name the carbohydrate store found in Chlamydomonas.
Medium
52.A prokaryotic cell measures 2 μm in diameter. Calculate its diameter in nanometres (nm).
Medium
53.Describe the role of the cell surface membrane.
Hard
54.Describe the structure of lysosomes and their role within cells.
Hard
55.Give the meaning of the term specialised cell.
Hard
56.Describe how a sample of chloroplasts could be obtained from leaf tissue using cell fractionation techniques.
Hard
57.Explain how two features of an epithelial cell in the small intestine aid its function.
Hard
58.A prokaryotic cell measures 2 μm in diameter and a eukaryotic cell measures 0.1 mm. Calculate how many times larger the eukaryotic cell is than the prokaryotic cell.
Medium
- A55 times
- B50 times
- C60 times
- D45 times
59.In certain conditions some prokaryotic cells can divide every 25 minutes. Assuming that each cell divides every 25 minutes, calculate the number of cells that will be present after 3.75 hours if the starting population contains 2.45 × 10³ cells. Assume that no cells die during this time.
Medium
- A627200 cells
- B564480 cells
- C752640 cells
- D689920 cells
60.In certain conditions some prokaryotic cells can divide every 25 minutes. Assuming that each cell divides every 25 minutes, calculate the number of cells that will be present after 3.75 hours if the starting population contains 2.45 × 10³ cells. Assume that no cells die during this time.
Hard
- A1254400 cells
- B627200 cells
- C2508800 cells
- D22050 cells
61.A prokaryotic cell measures 2 μm in diameter. Calculate its diameter in nanometres (nm).
Medium
- A2200 nm
- B2400 nm
- C2000 nm
- D1800 nm

復習ノート

## The Cell Theory - All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. - The cell is the basic unit of life. - All cells arise from pre-existing cells. ## Eukaryotic Cell Structure - **Cell-surface membrane**: controls substance entry/exit; phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. - **Nucleus**: contains linear DNA (protein-bound as chromosomes); nucleolus produces ribosomes. - **Mitochondria**: site of aerobic respiration and ATP production. - **Chloroplasts**: site of photosynthesis (plants/algae); contain chlorophyll. - **Golgi apparatus**: modifies and packages proteins and lipids; forms vesicles e.g. lysosomes. - **Lysosomes**: vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes for digesting worn-out organelles or pathogens. - **Endoplasmic reticulum**: Rough ER (ribosome-covered) – synthesis and transport of proteins; Smooth ER – synthesises and stores lipids and carbohydrates. - **Ribosomes**: site of protein synthesis; 80S in eukaryotes, 70S in prokaryotes. - **Cell wall**: provides strength/support; cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi. - **Vacuole**: stores cell sap (plants); helps maintain cell pressure and structure. ## Specialisation of Eukaryotic Cells - Cells become specialised to perform specific functions; structure adapted to role. - **Red blood cells**: biconcave, lack nucleus – more space for oxygen transport. - **Protein-producing cells**: many ribosomes. - **Neurones**: conduct nerve impulses; long axon (up to 1m), myelin sheath insulates and speeds conduction. - **Muscle cells**: contraction; actin and myosin filaments slide; high density of mitochondria; skeletal muscle cells fuse to form multinucleated fibres. - **Sperm cells**: head with haploid nucleus; acrosome contains digestive enzymes; mid-piece packed with mitochondria; tail rotates. - **Root hair cells**: root hair increases surface area; thin cell wall reduces diffusion distance; vacuole maintains water potential gradient; mitochondria for active transport; no chloroplasts. - **Xylem vessel cells**: no end walls, dead and lack organelles; walls thickened with lignin. - **Phloem vessel cells**: living cells with sieve plates; companion cells provide ATP. ## Eukaryotic Cell Organisation - Specialised cells of same type form a **tissue**; tissues combine to form an **organ**; organs work together as an **organ system**. - Examples: epithelial cell → epithelial tissue → stomach → digestive system; muscle cell → muscle tissue → bladder → urinary system; neurones → nervous tissue → brain → central nervous system; rod and cone cells → retina → eye → visual system. ## Prokaryotic Cells - Much smaller than eukaryotic cells; cytoplasm lacks membrane-bound organelles. - **70S ribosomes**; no nucleus; single circular DNA free in cytoplasm, not associated with proteins. - Cell wall contains **murein**. - Additional structures: **plasmids** (small circular DNA, non-essential genes e.g. antibiotic resistance), **capsule** (protective, prevents desiccation, evades immune system), **flagella** (motility). ## Prokaryotic v Eukaryotic Cells - Size: prokaryotes 0.5–5 μm diameter; eukaryotes up to 100 μm diameter. - Genome: prokaryotes – circular DNA, no proteins; eukaryotes – DNA associated with histones forming chromosomes. - Cell division: prokaryotes – binary fission, no spindle; eukaryotes – mitosis or meiosis with spindle. - Ribosomes: prokaryotes 70S; eukaryotes 80S. - Organelles: prokaryotes very few, no membrane-bound; eukaryotes numerous membrane-bound (single: lysosomes, Golgi, vacuoles; double: nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast; no membrane: ribosomes, centrioles, microtubules). - Cell wall: prokaryotes peptidoglycan and murein; eukaryotes plants cellulose/lignin, fungi chitin. ## Viruses - Non-living: non-cellular, cannot reproduce independently, no growth or response to stimuli, no protein synthesis, no metabolic activity; all parasitic. - Much smaller than prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. - Structure: genetic material (DNA or RNA, single or double-stranded); **capsid** (protein coat with attachment proteins); attachment proteins bind to host cell receptors.

Cell theory: All living organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Cell-surface membrane: Controls substance entry/exit; composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Nucleus: Contains linear DNA (protein-bound as chromosomes); nucleolus produces ribosomes.
Mitochondria: The site of aerobic respiration and ATP production.
Chloroplasts: The site of photosynthesis (in plants/algae); contains chlorophyll.
Golgi apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins and lipids; forms vesicles e.g. lysosomes.
Lysosomes: Vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for digesting worn-out organelles or pathogens.
Rough ER: Ribosome-covered and responsible for the synthesis and transport of proteins.
Smooth ER: Synthesises and stores lipids and carbohydrates.
Ribosomes: The site of protein synthesis; 80S in eukaryotes and 70S in prokaryotes.
Cell wall: Provides strength/support; made from cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi.
Vacuole: Stores cell sap (in plants); helps maintain cell pressure and structure.
Tissue: A group of similar cells working together.
Organ: A structure formed from different tissues working together.
Organ system: Organs working together as part of a system.
Prokaryotic cell: Much smaller than eukaryotic cells; cytoplasm lacks membrane-bound organelles; has 70S ribosomes, no nucleus, single circular DNA free in cytoplasm, cell wall contains murein.
Plasmids: Small, circular loops of DNA carrying non-essential genes (e.g. antibiotic resistance); can be transferred between prokaryotes.
Capsule (slime capsule): Protective outer layer that prevents desiccation and helps evade immune system attack.
Flagella: Long, rotating tail for motility.
Binary fission: Cell division in prokaryotes; no spindle involved.
Virus: Non-living, non-cellular, parasitic; cannot reproduce independently; has genetic material (DNA or RNA) and a capsid with attachment proteins.
Capsid: A protein coat surrounding genetic material and containing attachment proteins.

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