Species & Taxonomy

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Courtship

Organisms belong to the same species if they interbreed in their natural habitat to produce fertile offspring.
Successful mating is often preceded by some form of courtship behaviour.
Courtship in animals is a behaviour that eventually results in mating and reproduction.
Courtship can be simple, involving a small number of visual, chemical or auditory stimuli, or a complex sequence using several modes of communication.
Courtship plays a major role in species recognition, helping individuals identify mates of the same species.
In×Drosophila×fruit flies, each species has a unique, genetically controlled courtship ritual; males perform species-specific dances and females only respond to the correct sequence.

Phylogenetic Classification

Phylogenetics is the study of how organisms are evolutionarily related, often shown using a phylogenetic tree.
The phylogenetic system arranges organisms into groups based on their evolutionary origins and relationships.
In this system, there is a hierarchy of groups with smaller groups placed within larger groups and no overlap between groups.
Each group is called a taxon (plural taxa).
Phylogenetic systems use DNA, RNA and protein similarities to identify evolutionary links; more similar sequences suggest a more recent common ancestor.
Grouping organisms this way helps scientists communicate clearly, apply knowledge from one species to closely related species, and gain an accurate count of species for conservation.
Classification changes as more molecular analysis is completed, so phylogenetic classification is becoming more accurate over time.
The highest taxonomic ranking is the domain; the three domains system (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryotes) is based on molecular analysis of RNA.

Hierarchy of the Taxa

The hierarchical classification system organises and groups similar organisms together so they can be more easily understood.
A hierarchical system is one in which larger groups contain smaller groups with no overlap between groups.
All taxonomic ranks or taxa make up a taxonomic hierarchy.
The hierarchy comprises the taxa: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Species is the lowest taxonomic rank and domain is the highest.
Similar species are grouped in a genus; similar genera in a family; similar families in an order; similar orders in a class; similar classes in a phylum; similar phyla in a kingdom; similar kingdoms in a domain.
A mnemonic for the ranks below domain is: Kings Play Chess On Fancy Gold Squares (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species).

Binomial Naming

Binomials are the scientific name of a species.
A binomial consists of the organism's genus and species name in modern Latin.
For example, the binomial for humans is ×Homo sapiens×and for dogs is ×Canis familiaris×.
Binomials allow species to be universally identified — the binomial for a species is the same across the entire globe.
The binomial is always typed in italics or underlined when handwritten; the genus begins with a capital letter and the species with a lowercase letter.

Evolutionary Relationships: Genome Sequencing

Using physical features (such as colour, shape or size) to determine evolutionary relationships has limitations and can lead to wrong classification.
Advances in genome sequencing and immunology allow scientists to further investigate evolutionary relationships.
Sequencing technology can determine the order of DNA bases, mRNA bases and amino acids within an organism's genome.
This is especially useful for comparison with an extinct species (using ancient DNA) or when distinguishing between species that are very physically similar.
Scientists choose specific proteins or sections of the genome for comparison; looking at multiple proteins or regions gives a more accurate estimate of relatedness.
The protein used needs to be present in a wide range of organisms and show sufficient variation between species.
Cytochrome c is often used because it is an integral protein to respiration (in the electron transport chain) used by all eukaryotic organisms.
For all types of sequence data, the more similar the sequences, the more closely related the species are.
Two groups with very similar sequences separated into separate species more recently than two groups with less similarity.
Species separated for longer have had more time to accumulate mutations and changes to their DNA, mRNA and amino acid sequences.

Evolutionary Relationships: Immunology

Proteins of organisms can also be compared using immunological techniques.
The protein albumin is found in many species and is commonly used for these experiments.
Method: pure albumin is extracted from various species and injected into separate rabbits; each rabbit produces antibodies specific to that albumin.
These antibodies are mixed with different albumin samples, and the resulting precipitate (antigen–antibody complexes) is weighed.
The heavier the precipitate, the greater the similarity between the antibody and albumin.
For example, antibodies to human albumin form more precipitate with chimpanzee albumin than with rat albumin, reflecting closer evolutionary relatedness.

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练习题

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1.Which property of offspring defines whether two individual animals that mate and produce offspring are from the same species?
Easy
- AFertility
- BSimilar appearance
- CSame call/voice
- DHigh appetite for food
2.An organism can belong to two taxonomic groups at the same time.
Easy
True or false?
3.Phylum is the highest rank in the taxonomic hierarchy.
Easy
True or false?
4.Taxonomy uses a system of hierarchical groups to classify organisms.
Easy
True or false?
5.Family is the third-lowest rank in the taxonomic hierarchy.
Easy
True or false?
6.The taxonomy of bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) is shown: Domain Eukarya, A Chromista, Phylum Heterokontophyta, B Phaeophyceae, C Fucales, Family Fucaceae, Genus D, Species E. Which letter represents the order?
Medium
- AC
- BA
- CB
- DD
7.List the taxonomic groups for the Eurasian beaver in descending order of rank, beginning with the largest taxon. The groups are: Order Rodentia, Phylum Chordata, Species fiber, Domain Eukarya, Genus Castor, Kingdom Animalia, Family Castoridae, Class Mammalia.
Medium
- Domain Eukarya
- Kingdom Animalia
- Phylum Chordata
- Class Mammalia
- Order Rodentia
- Family Castoridae
- Genus Castor
- Species fiber
8.Before protein analysis and DNA sequencing became available, taxonomists used alternative observations to determine evolutionary relationships. Which of the following are short-term observations that could be made to distinguish between two species? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- AColour
- BShape
- CSize
- DDNA base sequence
- EAmino acid sequence

更多题目

9.Which of the following is the correct definition of a species?
Medium
- AA group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring
- BA group of organisms that look identical
- CA group of organisms that live in the same habitat
- DA group of organisms that have the same number of chromosomes
10.Which of the following is the highest taxonomic rank?
Medium
- ADomain
- BKingdom
- CPhylum
- DSpecies
11.Which of the following correctly lists the taxonomic ranks from lowest to highest?
Medium
- ASpecies, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain
- BDomain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
- CSpecies, genus, order, family, class, phylum, kingdom, domain
- DDomain, kingdom, class, phylum, order, family, genus, species
12.Which of the following statements about phylogenetic classification are correct? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- AIt arranges organisms into groups based on evolutionary origins.
- BThere is a hierarchy of groups with no overlap.
- CEach group is called a taxon.
- DIt uses only physical features to determine relationships.
- EIt is becoming more accurate over time as molecular analysis advances.
13.The three domains system is based on molecular analysis of RNA.
Easy
True or false?
14.Match each taxonomic rank with its correct description.
Medium
- Domain
- Species
- Genus
- Family
- The highest taxonomic rank
- The lowest taxonomic rank
- A group of similar species
- A group of similar genera
15.Place the following taxonomic ranks in order from largest to smallest.
Medium
- Domain
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
16.In immunological techniques to compare proteins, pure albumin is injected into rabbits. What does the weight of the precipitate indicate?
Medium
- AThe greater the similarity between the antibody and albumin
- BThe greater the difference between the species
- CThe larger the size of the albumin protein
- DThe higher the concentration of albumin in the sample
17.The binomial name for humans is Homo sapiens.
Easy
True or false?
18.Which of the following is NOT a domain in the three domains system?
Medium
- AFungi
- BBacteria
- CArchaea
- DEukarya
19.Which of the following are limitations of using physical features to determine evolutionary relationships? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- APhysical features can be influenced by the environment.
- BDifferent species can look very similar.
- CPhysical features do not always reflect genetic relatedness.
- DPhysical features are always accurate.
- EPhysical features can change during an organism's lifetime.
20.Which of the following are reasons why courtship behaviour increases the probability of successful mating? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- AIt enables recognition of members of the same species
- BIt stimulates the female to release gametes
- CIt ensures the male is physically stronger than rivals
- DIt synchronises mating so that it occurs when both partners are ready
- EIt allows the formation of a pair bond to raise offspring
21.Match each courtship example with the correct description.
Medium
- Drosophila courtship
- Bowerbird courtship
- Courtship dance
- Male constructs and decorates a shelter to attract a female
- Species-specific wing vibrations and body movements
- A precise sequence of physical moves and calls
22.Place the following courtship steps of a bowerbird in the order in which they occur.
Medium
- Male builds and decorates a bower
- Female inspects the bower
- Female allows the male to mate with her
23.Which of the following is the correct order of taxonomic ranks from largest to smallest?
Medium
- ADomain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
- BKingdom, Domain, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
- CDomain, Phylum, Kingdom, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
- DDomain, Kingdom, Class, Phylum, Order, Family, Genus, Species
24.In the hierarchical classification system, larger groups contain smaller groups with no overlap between groups.
Easy
True or false?
25.Place the following taxonomic ranks in order from smallest to largest.
Medium
- Species
- Genus
- Family
- Order
- Class
- Phylum
- Kingdom
- Domain
26.Antibodies were produced against human albumin and mixed with albumin samples from three species. The masses of precipitate formed were: chimpanzee 4.8 g, rat 1.2 g, and an unknown species X 4.5 g. Which conclusion is best supported by these results?
Medium
- ASpecies X is more closely related to humans than the rat is.
- BSpecies X is more closely related to humans than the chimpanzee is.
- CSpecies X is equally related to humans and the chimpanzee.
- DSpecies X is not related to humans at all.
27.The DNA base sequences of three species are shown. Species K: A C T G T T G A T A C. Species L: A C T G G C G A T T C. Species M: A C T G T C G A T T C. Which species is most closely related to species K, and why?
Hard
- ASpecies M, because it differs from K at only one base position.
- BSpecies L, because it differs from K at only one base position.
- CSpecies M, because it has the same number of bases as K.
- DSpecies L, because it shares the first four bases with K.
28.Cytochrome c is a respiratory protein of about 100 amino acids found in all eukaryotic organisms. Haemoglobin is a quaternary protein of over 400 amino acids found only in red blood cells of some animals. Which protein is the better choice for building a phylogenetic tree that spans Plantae, Fungi and Animalia?
Medium
- ACytochrome c, because it is present in a wide range of organisms and shows sufficient variation between species.
- BHaemoglobin, because it is a larger protein and therefore provides more sequence data.
- CHaemoglobin, because it is a quaternary protein and so is more conserved.
- DCytochrome c, because it is found only in animals and can be compared easily.
29.A scientist compares the amino acid sequence of cytochrome c in five animals with that of human cytochrome c. The number of differences is: human 0, monkey 1, pig 10, dog 11, duck 11, turtle 15. Which animal is most closely related to humans?
Medium
- AMonkey
- BPig
- CDog
- DTurtle
30.Which of the following statements about sequence data and evolutionary relationships are correct? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- AThe more similar the sequences, the more closely related the species are.
- BTwo groups with very similar sequences separated into separate species more recently than two groups with less similar sequences.
- CSpecies separated for longer have had more time to accumulate mutations in their DNA.
- DAmino acid sequences always provide more data about evolutionary relationships than DNA sequences.
- ESpecies that are physically very similar cannot be distinguished using sequence data.
31.A student is comparing the DNA of an extinct species with that of living species. Which of the following are challenges or considerations when doing this? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- ADNA from extinct species may be degraded or present in only small amounts.
- BAncient DNA may be contaminated by DNA from other organisms.
- CDNA analysis cannot be used to compare extinct and living species.
- DOnly amino acid sequences can be compared between extinct and living species.
- EDNA from extinct species is always identical to that of a living species.
32.The heavier the precipitate formed when antibodies to human albumin are mixed with an albumin sample, the greater the similarity between the albumin samples.
Easy
True or false?
33.DNA sequences always provide less data about evolutionary relationships than amino acid sequences.
Medium
True or false?
34.Match each type of sequence data or protein with the correct description.
Medium
- DNA base sequence
- mRNA base sequence
- Amino acid sequence
- Cytochrome c
- Can be determined directly from the genome and provides the most data for comparison.
- A transcript of the DNA sequence and can also be sequenced for comparison.
- The order of amino acids in a protein, which can be compared between species.
- A respiratory protein used in the electron transport chain, found in all eukaryotes.
35.Place the following steps of the immunological technique used to compare proteins in the correct order.
Medium
- Pure albumin is extracted from various species.
- The albumin is injected into separate rabbits.
- Each rabbit produces antibodies specific to that albumin.
- The antibodies are mixed with different albumin samples.
- The resulting precipitate is weighed.
36.Which animal is most closely related to humans?
Medium
- AMonkey
- BPig
- CDog
- DTurtle
37.In the immunological technique used to compare proteins between species, pure albumin is extracted from a species and injected into a rabbit. What is the purpose of this injection?
Medium
- ATo stimulate the rabbit to produce antibodies specific to that albumin
- BTo stimulate the rabbit to produce albumin of its own
- CTo cause the rabbit to produce a precipitate directly
- DTo denature the albumin so it can be weighed
38.In an immunological comparison of albumins, antibodies to human albumin are mixed with albumin samples from three species. The masses of precipitate are: chimpanzee 4.8 g, rat 1.2 g, and dog 2.5 g. Which species is most closely related to humans?
Medium
- AChimpanzee
- BRat
- CDog
- DAll are equally related
39.Cytochrome c is a respiratory protein of about 100 amino acids found in all eukaryotic organisms. Haemoglobin is a quaternary protein of over 400 amino acids found in red blood cells. Which protein is a better choice for constructing a phylogenetic tree that spans plants, fungi and animals?
Medium
- ACytochrome c, because it is present in all eukaryotic organisms
- BHaemoglobin, because it is larger and provides more data
- CCytochrome c, because it is found only in animals
- DHaemoglobin, because it is found in all eukaryotic organisms
40.Which of the following are reasons why cytochrome c is often chosen for comparing evolutionary relationships between species? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- AIt is present in a wide range of organisms
- BIt shows sufficient variation between species
- CIt is an integral protein to respiration
- DIt is found only in mammals
- EIt is the largest protein in the electron transport chain
41.Using the taxonomy of bladderwrack, identify the missing name represented by letter D (genus).
Easy
42.Using the taxonomy of bladderwrack, identify the missing name represented by letter E (species).
Easy
43.The blue oak belongs to the taxa: Family Fagaceae, Genus Quercus, Species douglasii. State the binomial name of the blue oak.
Easy
44.Complete the classification of the domestic dog, Canis familiaris, by filling in the missing taxa.
Medium
Kingdom Animalia, Phylum ____, Class ____, Order Carnivora, Family Canidae, Genus ____.
45.Name two other types of sequence data, besides DNA, that could be used to compare domestic dogs and wolves.
Easy
46.Complete the sentence about binomial names.
Easy
A binomial name consists of the ____ name and the ____ name.
47.What is the term for a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring?
Easy
48.How many taxonomic ranks are there in the hierarchy from domain to species?
Medium
49.Complete the sentence about sequence data.
Medium
The more similar the sequences, the more ____ related the species are.
50.In a comparison of cytochrome c amino acid sequences, humans and monkeys differ at 1 position, humans and pigs at 10 positions. How many more differences are there between humans and pigs than between humans and monkeys?
Medium
51.Name the protein that is commonly used in immunological techniques to compare evolutionary relationships between species.
Medium
52.Complete the sentence about the definition of a species by filling in the missing word.
Easy
Organisms belong to the same species if they interbreed in their natural habitat to produce ____ offspring.
53.Define the term courtship in animal behaviour and state its purpose.
Easy
54.The bowerbird has an elaborate courtship ritual in which the male constructs a shelter (bower) from twigs and sticks, decorating it with ornaments. Some species construct a bower with a roof, others do not. Explain how this aids in species recognition.
Medium
55.State two differences that would be seen between the cells of the bacteria and archaea kingdoms, and the cells of the eukarya kingdom.
Medium
56.State what a binomial name is made up of in this context.
Medium
57.Define the term ‘hierarchical’ when it is used to describe the hierarchical classification system of organisms in biology.
Medium
58.How many taxonomic ranks are there in the hierarchy from domain to species?
Medium
- A7
- B10
- C8
- D9
59.In a comparison of cytochrome c amino acid sequences, humans and monkeys differ at 1 position, humans and pigs at 10 positions. How many more differences are there between humans and pigs than between humans and monkeys?
Medium
- A8 differences
- B11 differences
- C10 differences
- D9 differences

复习笔记

## Species & Taxonomy — Revision Notes ### Courtship - **Species definition:** organisms belong to the same species if they **interbreed in their natural habitat to produce fertile offspring**. - **Courtship** is a behaviour that eventually results in **mating and reproduction**. - It can be simple (a few visual, chemical or auditory stimuli) or a complex sequence using several modes of communication. - **Major role in species recognition** — e.g. *Drosophila* species look alike but each has a unique, genetically controlled courtship ritual (species-specific dances: wing vibrations, body movements, licking). Females only respond to the correct sequence. ### Phylogenetic Classification - **Phylogenetics** = study of how organisms are evolutionarily related (often shown as a phylogenetic tree). - Organisms are grouped by **evolutionary origins and relationships** using **DNA, RNA and protein similarities**. - More similar DNA sequences → **more recent common ancestor**. - Under this system: there is a **hierarchy** (smaller groups within larger groups), **no overlap** between groups, and each group is a **taxon** (plural **taxa**). - Benefits: clear scientific communication; knowledge about one species can apply to close relatives; accurate species counts for **conservation**. - Classification changes as more molecular analysis is done — it becomes **more accurate over time**. The five kingdoms have been incorporated into the **three domains** (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryotes), based on molecular analysis of RNA; Archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes than to other prokaryotes. ### Hierarchy of the Taxa - A **hierarchical system** = larger groups contain smaller groups with **no overlap**. - Ranks (taxa): **domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species**. - **Species is the lowest rank; domain is the highest.** - Similar species → genus; genera → family; families → order; orders → class; classes → phylum; phyla → kingdom; kingdoms → domain. - Memory aid: **Kings Play Chess On Fancy Gold Squares**. ### Binomials - A **binomial** is the scientific name of a species: **genus + species name in modern Latin**. - Examples: *Homo sapiens* (humans), *Canis familiaris* (dogs). - Allows **universal identification** across the globe. - Always **italicised** (or underlined if handwritten); **genus capitalised, species lowercase**. ### Evolutionary Relationships - Physical features (colour/shape/size) have **limitations** and can lead to wrong classification. - **Genome sequencing** determines the order of **DNA bases, mRNA bases and amino acids**; useful for extinct species (ancient DNA) and physically similar species. - Use **multiple proteins/regions** for a more accurate estimate. - Protein must be **present in a wide range of organisms and show sufficient variation**. - **Cytochrome c** is often used: integral to respiration (electron transport chain), used by all eukaryotic organisms. - **Key rule:** the more similar the sequences, the more closely related the species. Very similar sequences → separated into separate species **more recently**. Longer separation → more time to **accumulate mutations** in DNA, mRNA and amino acid sequences. - **Immunology:** albumin extracted from species, injected into rabbits → antibodies; mixed with albumin samples; **heavier precipitate = greater similarity** (e.g. human albumin antibodies form more precipitate with chimpanzee than rat albumin). - Proteins are often **easier to isolate than DNA/mRNA**; amino acid sequence is often more conserved and useful for comparison.

Species: Organisms that interbreed in their natural habitat to produce fertile offspring.
Courtship: Animal behaviour that eventually results in mating and reproduction; plays a major role in species recognition.
Phylogenetics: The study of how organisms are evolutionarily related, often shown using a phylogenetic tree.
Taxon (plural taxa): A group within the phylogenetic classification system; groups are arranged in a hierarchy with no overlap.
Hierarchical system: A system in which larger groups contain smaller groups with no overlap between groups.
Taxonomic hierarchy: The ranks: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species; species is the lowest rank and domain is the highest.
Binomial: The scientific name of a species, consisting of the organism's genus and species name in modern Latin.
Cytochrome c: An integral protein to respiration (in the electron transport chain) used by all eukaryotic organisms; often used in sequence comparisons.
Sequence data: DNA, mRNA and amino acid sequences; the more similar the sequences, the more closely related the species are.
Immunological technique (albumin): Albumin injected into rabbits produces specific antibodies; the heavier the precipitate when mixed with albumin samples, the greater the similarity between species.

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