Punctuation

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课程笔记

Why Punctuation Matters

Punctuation marks show how written text should be read and understood, guiding pauses and emphasis.
Changing punctuation can completely alter meaning: compare 'woman, without her man, is nothing' with 'woman: without her, man is nothing'.
Punctuation rules vary by language, place, register and time period.
In online chat and text messages, punctuation is often used in a shortened, tachygraphic way, especially by younger users.

Ending Sentences: Full Stops, Question Marks and Exclamation Marks

A full stop marks the end of a declarative sentence.
A question mark marks the end of an interrogative sentence (a direct question).
An exclamation mark shows strong emotion, surprise or emphasis at the end of a sentence.
In early punctuation systems, the punctus versus marked the end of a declarative sentence and the punctus interrogativus marked the end of an interrogative sentence.

Commas: Lists, Fronted Adverbials and Embedded Clauses

Use commas to separate items in a list.
Place a comma after a fronted adverbial (a phrase or clause that comes before the main clause).
Use commas around an embedded clause (a clause inserted into the middle of a sentence) to show it is extra information.
Avoid the comma splice: do not join two independent clauses with only a comma.

Apostrophes: Omission and Possession

An apostrophe can show omission, where letters have been left out (e.g., do not → don't).
An apostrophe can show possession, indicating ownership (e.g., the girl's book).
For plural nouns ending in -s, the possessive apostrophe usually goes after the s (e.g., the girls' books).

Inverted Commas: Speech and Quotation

Use inverted commas (speech marks) to enclose direct speech.
Use inverted commas to enclose a quotation taken from another source.
In medieval manuscripts, direct quotations were marked with marginal diples, and later diples were sometimes placed within the column of text.

Colons, Semicolons, Dashes, Brackets and Hyphens

A colon can introduce a list, an explanation or a quotation.
A semicolon can link two closely related independent clauses or separate complex items in a list.
A dash can mark a break in thought or add emphasis.
Brackets (parentheses) enclose extra information or an aside.
A hyphen joins words or parts of words (e.g., well-known).

The Historical Development of Punctuation

The oldest known punctuation marks were found in the Mesha Stele from the 9th century BC, consisting of points between words and horizontal strokes between sections.
Ancient Greek scribes used vertically arranged dots (dicolon or tricolon) to aid oral delivery.
Aristophanes of Byzantium invented the théseis system (after 200 BC), placing a single dot called a punctus at different heights to mark rhetorical divisions: hypostigmḗ (low), stigmḕ mésē (mid), and stigmḕ teleía (high).
Medieval scribes added marks such as the punctus, punctus elevatus, punctus versus and punctus interrogativus to guide reading aloud.
Irish scribes introduced word separation, and insular scribes adapted the distinctiones system using different numbers of marks to show pause length.

Punctuation Hierarchy and Modern Marks

By the 19th century, grammarians explained differences between punctuation marks using a hierarchy that gave different weights to them.
In 1966, French author Hervé Bazin proposed six new marks that can be seen as predecessors of emoticons and emojis.
Punctuation includes spaces between words as well as both obsolete and modern signs.

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练习题

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1.Which punctuation mark is used to end a question?
Easy
- AFull stop
- BQuestion mark
- CExclamation mark
- DComma
2.Which sentence uses an apostrophe correctly for omission?
Easy
- AThe dog's are barking.
- BThe dogs' are barking.
- CThe dogs are barking.
- DThe dog's barking loudly.
3.Which sentence correctly uses a comma after a fronted adverbial?
Medium
- AAfter the storm we cleaned up the garden.
- BAfter the storm, we cleaned up the garden.
- CAfter, the storm we cleaned up the garden.
- DAfter the storm we cleaned, up the garden.
4.Which sentence contains a comma splice?
Medium
- AI like tea, but she likes coffee.
- BI like tea, she likes coffee.
- CI like tea; she likes coffee.
- DI like tea. She likes coffee.
5.Which of the following are correct uses of a semicolon? (Select all that apply.)
Medium
- ATo join two independent clauses without a conjunction.
- BTo separate items in a list when the items themselves contain commas.
- CTo introduce a list of items.
- DTo end a sentence.
- ETo show possession.
6.A colon can be used to introduce a list.
Easy
True or false?
7.Match each punctuation mark with its main function.
Medium
- Full stop
- Question mark
- Exclamation mark
- Comma
- Ends a statement
- Ends a question
- Shows strong emotion
- Separates items in a list
8.Arrange these punctuation marks in order of the size of pause they typically indicate, from shortest to longest.
Medium
- Comma
- Semicolon
- Full stop

复习笔记

## Punctuation — KS3 Revision Notes **Why punctuation matters:** Punctuation marks show how a text should be read and understood. The same words can mean very different things depending on the marks used. Compare: *woman, without her man, is nothing* (men matter) with *woman: without her, man is nothing* (women matter). **Sentence endings** - **Full stop (.)** — ends a statement. - **Question mark (?)** — ends a direct question. - **Exclamation mark (!)** — shows strong feeling or emphasis. **Commas** - Separate items in a **list**: *bread, milk, eggs and cheese*. - Follow a **fronted adverbial** (a phrase placed before the main clause): *After lunch, we went out.* - Surround an **embedded clause** (extra information inside a sentence): *My brother, who is ten, plays football.* - **Never** join two complete sentences with only a comma — that is a **comma splice**. Fix it with a full stop, semicolon or conjunction. **Apostrophes** - **Omission** — show missing letters: *do not → don't*, *it is → it's*. - **Possession** — show ownership: *the girl's bag* (one girl), *the girls' bags* (more than one girl). - Note: *its* = belonging to it; *it's* = it is. **Inverted commas** - Enclose **direct speech**: *"Wait here," she said.* - Enclose a **quotation** from a text or speaker. **Other marks** - **Colon (:)** — introduces a list, explanation or quotation. - **Semicolon (;)** — links two closely related independent clauses; also separates complex list items. - **Dash (—)** — adds a dramatic aside or break. - **Brackets ( )** — add extra, non-essential information. - **Hyphen (-)** — joins words into a compound: *well-known*, *twenty-one*. **Quick check:** Read your sentence aloud. If you pause for breath, a comma may help — but never let a comma do a full stop's job.

Punctuation: Marks indicating how a piece of written text should be read (silently or aloud) and, consequently, understood.
Comma splice: Joining two complete sentences with only a comma; this is an error and should be fixed with a full stop, semicolon or conjunction.
Fronted adverbial: A phrase placed before the main clause, usually followed by a comma (e.g. After lunch, we went out).
Embedded clause: A clause inside a sentence that adds extra information, often surrounded by commas (e.g. My brother, who is ten, plays football).
Apostrophe for omission: An apostrophe showing missing letters (e.g. do not → don't).
Apostrophe for possession: An apostrophe showing ownership (e.g. the girl's bag; the girls' bags).
Inverted commas: Marks used to enclose direct speech or a quotation.
Colon: A mark introducing a list, explanation or quotation.
Semicolon: A mark linking two closely related independent clauses, or separating complex list items.
Dash: A mark adding a dramatic aside or break in a sentence.
Brackets: Marks adding extra, non-essential information.
Hyphen: A mark joining words into a compound (e.g. well-known, twenty-one).

闪卡

What is punctuation?

Punctuation marks are marks that show how a piece of written text should be read, silently or aloud, and therefore how it should be understood.

What is scriptio continua?

Writing without punctuation or spaces to mark word boundaries, as most Western scribes did during antiquity.

What was the punctus in the théseis system?

A single dot placed at different heights to show rhetorical divisions in speech, invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium after 200 BC.

In the théseis system, what did the hypostigmḗ mark?

A low punctus on the baseline marking off a komma, a unit smaller than a clause.

In the théseis system, what did the stigmḕ mésē mark?

A punctus at midheight marking off a clause (kōlon).

In the théseis system, what did the stigmḕ teleía mark?

A high punctus marking off a sentence (periodos).

What was the paragraphos used for?

A Greek mark used to show the beginning of sentences.

What were marginal diples used for?

To mark quotations in the margin of a text.

What was the koronis used for?

To indicate the end of major sections of a text.

What are the four original positurae?

The punctus (minor pause within a sentence), punctus elevatus (major pause within a sentence), punctus versus (end of a declarative sentence) and punctus interrogativus (end of an interrogative sentence).

What was the punctus flexus added for?

A pause of a value between the punctus and the punctus elevatus, added in the 10th century.

What was the virgula suspensiva?

A slash, or slash with a midpoint dot, used in the late Middle Ages, often with the punctus, for different types of pauses.

Which scribes introduced word separation?

Irish scribes, in the 7th–8th centuries, added word separation to make texts more intelligible.

How did insular scribes adapt the distinctiones system?

They used a differing number of marks aligned horizontally (one for a minor pause, two for a medium one, three for a major one) instead of differing heights.

What was the Tironian et?

A 7-shaped mark (⁊), equivalent to a modern ampersand, often used in combination with the punctus.

What was the layout per cola et commata?

A layout used by Jerome in the Vulgate where every sense-unit was indented and given its own line.

How can punctuation change meaning?

Different punctuation can change meaning substantially, as in 'woman, without her man, is nothing' versus 'woman: without her, man is nothing'.

Do punctuation rules stay the same everywhere?

No — the rules of punctuation vary with the language, location, register and time.

How is punctuation used in online chat and text messages?

It is used tachygraphically, especially among younger users.

What did Hervé Bazin propose in 1966?

Six marks that could be seen as predecessors of emoticons and emojis.

When did the Greeks begin using punctuation, and why?

Around the 5th century BC, they used vertically arranged dots (usually a dicolon or tricolon) as an aid in the oral delivery of texts.

Why did punctuation develop dramatically in the Middle Ages?

Because large numbers of Bible copies were produced to be read aloud, so copyists introduced marks such as indentation, punctuation marks and early initial capitals to aid readers.

What is the oldest known example of punctuation marks?

Points between words and horizontal strokes between sections found in the Mesha Stele from the 9th century BC.

What did the Greeks use to mark quotations?

Marginal diples.

What happened to the punctus versus in the late 11th/early 12th century?

It disappeared and was taken over by the simple punctus, which then had two distinct values.

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