Monoclonal antibodies

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What Monoclonal Antibodies Are

Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies produced by identical immune cells that are all clones of a single parent cell.
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins made by lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell).
Each antibody is specific to one binding site on one protein antigen, so it can target one specific chemical or specific cell in the body.
Because they come from one clone, every antibody produced is identical and binds the same target — hence 'monoclonal'.

Monoclonal antibodies are identical and specific

Producing Monoclonal Antibodies

A mouse is injected with the antigen, which stimulates its lymphocytes to make a particular antibody.
Lymphocytes that make the wanted antibody are collected and combined with a tumour cell.
The fused cell is called a hybridoma cell.
The tumour cell is used because it can divide repeatedly.
The lymphocyte provides the ability to make the specific antibody.
The hybridoma cell can therefore both divide and produce the antibody — a white blood cell alone could not keep dividing to make enough antibody.
Single hybridoma cells are cloned, producing many identical cells that all make the same antibody.
Large amounts of the antibody are then collected and purified ready for use.

Making a hybridoma cell

Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies

In pregnancy tests, to detect the hormone HCG in urine.
In laboratories to measure levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood, such as some cancer proteins.
To detect pathogens in laboratory tests.
In research to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding to them with a fluorescent dye.
To treat some diseases, including cancer.

Using fluorescent monoclonal antibodies in research

Treating Cancer with Monoclonal Antibodies

The monoclonal antibody can be bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug, or a chemical that stops cells growing and dividing.
The antibody carries the substance directly to the cancer cells because it binds only to their specific antigens.
This is targeted drug delivery — it delivers the substance to cancer cells without harming other cells in the body.

Targeted drug delivery to cancer cells

Advantages and Disadvantages

Monoclonal antibodies have the potential to make big improvements to diagnosis and treatment.
When first developed, there were hopes their use would become widespread.
They create more side effects than expected, which has limited how widely they are used.
They are not yet as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed.

Evaluating monoclonal antibodies

Key Points to Remember

Monoclonal antibodies bind one specific antigen — they do not attack any cell.
In a hybridoma, the lymphocyte makes the antibody and the tumour cell allows repeated division.
You may be given information about a specific test or treatment and asked to explain how it works using the principle of antibody specificity.
Be prepared to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies, including ethical issues arising from their production and use.

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1.What are monoclonal antibodies?
Easy
- AAntibodies produced from a single clone of identical cells that all make the same antibody
- BA mixture of many different antibodies that each bind to different antigens
- CAntibodies that are able to bind to any antigen they encounter in the body
- DWhite blood cells that engulf and digest pathogens
2.Which of the following is not a use of monoclonal antibodies?
Easy
- APregnancy tests
- BDetecting illegal drug use in athletes
- CDiagnosing blood clots
- DAntifungal treatment for plant pathogens, such as rose black spot
3.Monoclonal antibodies are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen. What does this mean they are able to do?
Easy
- ATarget a specific chemical or specific cells in the body
- BBind to any protein they come into contact with
- CDestroy all cells that have proteins on their surface
- DChange shape to fit any antigen they meet
4.In the production of monoclonal antibodies, a mouse lymphocyte is combined with a particular type of tumour cell. Why is the tumour cell used?
Medium
- AIt can divide repeatedly
- BIt produces antibodies specific to the antigen
- CIt presents antigens to the lymphocyte
- DIt destroys the antigens that are not needed
5.Which of the following are uses of monoclonal antibodies? (select all that apply)
Medium
- APregnancy tests
- BMeasuring the levels of hormones or other chemicals in blood
- CLocating or identifying specific molecules in a cell or tissue using a fluorescent dye
- DDelivering a toxic drug or radioactive substance to cancer cells
- EProviding long-lasting immunity by vaccination against all pathogens
6.Which statements about hybridoma cells are correct? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AA hybridoma cell is formed by combining a lymphocyte with a tumour cell
- BA hybridoma cell can both divide and produce the antibody
- CSingle hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many identical cells
- DA hybridoma cell is a type of white blood cell that engulfs pathogens
- EA hybridoma cell produces many different types of antibody
7.Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells.
Easy
True or false?
8.Monoclonal antibodies attack any cell they come into contact with rather than binding to one specific antigen.
Easy
True or false?

Thêm câu hỏi

9.Monoclonal antibodies are now the standard, widely used treatment for most cancers.
Medium
True or false?
10.Match each term about monoclonal antibodies to its correct description.
Medium
- Monoclonal antibody
- Hybridoma cell
- Lymphocyte
- Tumour cell
- Antibody made by identical cloned immune cells, specific to one antigen
- Cell formed by combining a lymphocyte with a tumour cell, able to divide and make antibody
- White blood cell that produces antibodies
- Cell that can divide repeatedly and is combined with a lymphocyte
11.Place the steps in the production of monoclonal antibodies in the correct order.
Medium
- An antigen is injected into a mouse
- Mouse lymphocytes are stimulated to make a particular antibody
- The lymphocytes are combined with a tumour cell to make a hybridoma cell
- Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many identical cells
- A large amount of the antibody is collected and purified
12.Which part of the immune system produces antibodies?
Easy
- ALymphocytes
- BTumour cells
- CHybridoma cells
- DRed blood cells
13.Which of the following are correct about monoclonal antibodies? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AThey are produced by a single clone of cells
- BThey can be used to measure hormone levels in blood
- CThey bind to only one specific antigen
- DThey are effective against all viruses
- EThey are Y-shaped proteins
14.Match each term to its correct description.
Medium
- Lymphocyte
- Tumour cell
- Hybridoma cell
- Antigen
- Can divide repeatedly
- A protein on the surface of a pathogen that triggers an immune response
- A white blood cell that produces antibodies
- A cell that can both divide and produce antibodies
15.Place the steps in the correct order for producing monoclonal antibodies.
Medium
- Inject antigen into a mouse
- Combine lymphocytes with tumour cells to form hybridoma cells
- Clone single hybridoma cells
- Collect and purify the antibodies
16.In a pregnancy test, what do the monoclonal antibodies in the reaction zone bind to?
Medium
- AThe hormone HCG in the urine
- BThe blue dye directly
- CThe test line on the strip
- DEnzymes in the urine
17.Which of the following are advantages or disadvantages of using monoclonal antibodies to treat diseases? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AThey can deliver drugs specifically to cancer cells
- BThey create more side effects than expected
- CThey are not yet as widely used as initially hoped
- DThey are effective against all types of cancer
- EThey can be used in diagnosis
18.Monoclonal antibodies can be used in research to locate specific molecules in a cell by binding to them with a fluorescent dye.
Easy
True or false?
19.Why are tumour cells used in the production of monoclonal antibodies?
Medium
- AThey can divide repeatedly
- BThey produce antibodies
- CThey are specific to one antigen
- DThey can be easily purified
20.Which of the following is a use of monoclonal antibodies?
Medium
- ATo measure hormone levels in blood
- BTo treat all viral infections
- CTo replace red blood cells
- DTo provide energy to cells
21.A pregnancy test strip has mobile monoclonal antibodies that are specific to the hormone HCG. A woman's urine sample contains no HCG. What happens to the mobile antibodies in the reaction zone?
Medium
- AThey stay in the reaction zone and bind to the fixed antibodies there
- BThey travel along the strip and bind to HCG at the test line
- CThey travel along the strip without binding to HCG, so no line appears at the test line
- DThey bind to an enzyme in the results window and produce a colour change
22.A pregnancy test uses mobile monoclonal antibodies that have an enzyme attached to them instead of a blue dye. The enzyme catalyses a reaction that produces a colour change. A positive result is shown by a coloured line in the results window. Why does a coloured line appear only when HCG is present?
Medium
- AHCG itself acts as the enzyme that changes colour
- BThe enzyme only changes colour when it binds directly to HCG
- CThe mobile antibodies are held at the test line by HCG, so the enzyme they carry is also held there and changes the colour
- DHCG binds to the enzyme and stops it changing colour
23.A scientist uses monoclonal antibodies to treat a patient with a tumour. Which statements correctly describe what the monoclonal antibodies can be bound to in order to treat cancer? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AA radioactive substance
- BA toxic drug
- CA chemical that stops cells growing and dividing
- DA fluorescent dye used to make the tumour glow
- EA hormone that speeds up cell division
24.A monoclonal antibody is bound to a toxic drug and given to a patient with cancer. The drug kills cancer cells but causes far fewer side effects than giving the same drug on its own. Which statement best explains this?
Hard
- AThe antibody makes the drug harmless to all cells except cancer cells
- BThe antibody binds only to antigens on the cancer cells, so the drug is delivered mainly to those cells
- CThe antibody increases the dose of drug that reaches every cell in the body
- DThe antibody stops the drug from entering any cells at all
25.In a double-blind trial of a monoclonal antibody, neither the patients nor the doctors treating them know which patients received the monoclonal antibody and which received the placebo.
Medium
True or false?
26.In a trial of monoclonal antibodies to treat hepatitis B, 6.2% of the placebo group and 1.8% of the monoclonal antibody group were admitted to hospital. Which statement best evaluates how well these data support the conclusion that the monoclonal antibodies are more effective than the placebo?
Hard
- AThe data strongly support the conclusion because the monoclonal antibody group had a lower percentage admitted to hospital
- BThe data support the conclusion, but the trial did not measure whether patients recovered
- CThe data do not support the conclusion because more patients were in the placebo group
- DThe data support the conclusion only if the monoclonal antibodies caused no side effects
27.A student is producing monoclonal antibodies. After a mouse is injected with an antigen, which two cell types are combined to form a hybridoma cell?
Medium
- AA lymphocyte and a tumour cell
- BA lymphocyte and a red blood cell
- CA tumour cell and a bacterium
- DA hybridoma cell and a white blood cell
28.Monoclonal antibodies are used to treat cancer by delivering a toxic drug to cancer cells. Which property allows them to do this without harming other cells?
Medium
- AThey are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen, so they bind only to the target cancer cells
- BThey can bind to any cell and release the drug randomly
- CThey are able to dissolve all cells they come into contact with
- DThey are the same shape as the toxic drug and so carry it anywhere in the body
29.A scientist wants to produce monoclonal antibodies that bind to a specific protein on cancer cells. Which sequence of steps is correct?
Hard
- AInject antigen into a mouse, collect lymphocytes, fuse lymphocytes with tumour cells, clone the hybridoma cells, collect and purify the antibody
- BInject tumour cells into a mouse, collect red blood cells, fuse them with lymphocytes, clone the hybridoma cells, collect the antibody
- CInject antigen into a mouse, collect hybridoma cells directly, clone them, fuse with lymphocytes, collect the antibody
- DInject antigen into a mouse, collect lymphocytes, clone them, fuse with tumour cells, collect the antibody
30.In a laboratory, monoclonal antibodies are used to measure the level of a specific hormone in a blood sample. What is the main reason they can do this accurately?
Medium
- AThey bind specifically to that hormone, allowing it to be detected and measured
- BThey bind to all hormones in the blood sample
- CThey break down the hormone so its level can be calculated
- DThey change colour in the presence of any chemical in the blood
31.A researcher uses monoclonal antibodies attached to a fluorescent dye to study a cell. What is the purpose of this technique?
Medium
- ATo locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue
- BTo kill the cell being studied
- CTo measure the rate of cell division
- DTo make the cell produce more antibodies
32.Which of the following are correct advantages or disadvantages of using monoclonal antibodies to treat diseases? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AThey can target specific cells, reducing damage to healthy cells
- BThey create more side effects than expected
- CThey are already the standard, widely used treatment for all diseases
- DThey have the potential to make big improvements to diagnosis and treatment
- EThey are completely free of any side effects
33.A monoclonal antibody is bound to a radioactive substance and given to a patient with cancer. Which statements about this treatment are correct? (select all that apply)
Hard
- AThe antibody delivers the radioactive substance to the cancer cells
- BThe radioactive substance can kill the cancer cells
- CThe antibody binds to any cell in the body
- DHealthy cells are less affected because the antibody is specific to the cancer cells
- EThe radioactive substance is released randomly throughout the body
34.Monoclonal antibodies create fewer side effects than expected, which is why they are now widely used to treat many diseases.
Easy
True or false?
35.In a trial of monoclonal antibodies to treat hepatitis B, 6.2% of the placebo group and 1.8% of the monoclonal antibody group were admitted to hospital. Which conclusion is best supported by these data?
Medium
- AThe monoclonal antibody is more effective than the placebo at reducing hospital admissions
- BThe placebo is more effective than the monoclonal antibody at reducing hospital admissions
- CThe monoclonal antibody and placebo are equally effective
- DThe monoclonal antibody causes more hospital admissions than the placebo
36.What name is given to the cell formed when a lymphocyte is combined with a tumour cell?
Easy
- AHybridoma cell
- BLymphoma cell
- CAntibody cell
- DTumour lymphocyte
37.Which of the following is the correct definition of a monoclonal antibody?
Easy
- AAn antibody produced by a single clone of identical immune cells that all make the same antibody
- BAn antibody that can bind to many different antigens at once
- CA mixture of different antibodies produced by many different lymphocytes
- DAn antibody produced by a tumour cell on its own
38.In the production of monoclonal antibodies, what is the role of the tumour cell?
Medium
- AIt produces the antibody.
- BIt can divide repeatedly, so the hybridoma cell can multiply.
- CIt provides the antigen that the antibody binds to.
- DIt purifies the antibody.
39.A scientist wants to produce monoclonal antibodies that bind to a specific protein on cancer cells. Which of the following must be injected into a mouse to stimulate the correct lymphocytes?
Medium
- AThe specific protein antigen
- BA tumour cell
- CA hybridoma cell
- DA fluorescent dye
40.Monoclonal antibodies can be used in pregnancy tests. Which statement best explains why they are used?
Medium
- AThey bind specifically to the hormone HCG, which is present in the urine of a pregnant woman.
- BThey bind to any hormone present in urine.
- CThey react with the dye on the test strip to produce a colour change.
- DThey break down HCG to produce a visible line.
41.Name the type of cell formed when a lymphocyte is combined with a tumour cell.
Easy
42.Name the cell type that monoclonal antibodies are released from.
Medium
43.Complete the sentence about producing monoclonal antibodies.
Medium
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by stimulating mouse ____ to make a particular antibody, which are then combined with a particular type of ____ cell to make a hybridoma cell.
44.In a trial of a monoclonal antibody drug, 2022 critically ill patients took the drug and 70.5% of them survived after the first 28 days. Calculate the number of patients who survived. Give your answer to the nearest whole number.
Medium
45.In 2020 the WHO estimated that 680 000 people died from HIV-related causes, and 99 000 of these were children under 15. Calculate the percentage of HIV-related deaths that were children. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
Hard
46.A pregnancy test strip uses monoclonal antibodies to detect the hormone HCG. If a woman's urine contains 25 mIU/mL of HCG and the test's detection limit is 20 mIU/mL, will the test be positive? Enter 1 for yes or 0 for no.
Medium
47.Complete the sentence about the production of monoclonal antibodies.
Easy
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by stimulating mouse ____ to make a particular antibody.
48.In a trial of a monoclonal antibody, 3000 patients took part. Half were given a placebo and half were given the monoclonal antibody. In the placebo group, 6.2% of patients were admitted to hospital. Calculate the number of patients in the placebo group who were admitted to hospital.
Medium
49.In the same trial, 3000 patients took part, with half in the placebo group and half in the monoclonal antibody group. In the monoclonal antibody group, 1.8% of patients were admitted to hospital. Calculate the total number of patients admitted to hospital across both groups.
Hard
50.Complete the sentence about using monoclonal antibodies in research.
Medium
In research, monoclonal antibodies can be used to locate specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding to them with a ____ dye.
51.Monoclonal antibodies used to treat RSV do not work against HIV. Give the name of the property of antibodies that explains why an antibody for one antigen will not bind to a different antigen.
Easy
52.In 2020 the WHO estimated that 680 000 people died from HIV-related causes, and 99 000 of these were children under 15. Calculate the percentage of HIV-related deaths in 2020 that were in children under 15. Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
Medium
53.Monoclonal antibodies can be used to help target antiretroviral drugs to viruses in HIV-positive patients. Describe how they are able to do this.
Hard
54.Monoclonal antibodies used to treat RSV are ineffective against the HIV virus. Explain why.
Hard
55.Tocilizumab is a monoclonal antibody drug that can be used to treat people with severe Covid-19. Describe how a trial could be carried out on people with severe Covid-19 to make sure the drug is safe and effective.
Hard
56.Describe two ways that monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer.
Medium
57.Describe how monoclonal antibodies specific to the Zika virus would be produced.
Hard
58.In a trial of a monoclonal antibody drug, 2022 critically ill patients took the drug and 70.5% of them survived after the first 28 days. Calculate the number of patients who survived. Give your answer to the nearest whole number.
Medium
- A1569 patients
- B1712 patients
- C1426 patients
- D1283 patients
59.In 2020 the WHO estimated that 680 000 people died from HIV-related causes, and 99 000 of these were children under 15. Calculate the percentage of HIV-related deaths that were children. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
Hard
- A16.6 %
- B15.6 %
- C13.6 %
- D14.6 %
60.A pregnancy test strip uses monoclonal antibodies to detect the hormone HCG. If a woman's urine contains 25 mIU/mL of HCG and the test's detection limit is 20 mIU/mL, will the test be positive? Enter 1 for yes or 0 for no.
Medium
- A2
- B0
- C3
- D1
61.In a trial of a monoclonal antibody, 3000 patients took part. Half were given a placebo and half were given the monoclonal antibody. In the placebo group, 6.2% of patients were admitted to hospital. Calculate the number of patients in the placebo group who were admitted to hospital.
Medium
- A84 patients
- B102 patients
- C111 patients
- D93 patients
62.In the same trial, 3000 patients took part, with half in the placebo group and half in the monoclonal antibody group. In the monoclonal antibody group, 1.8% of patients were admitted to hospital. Calculate the total number of patients admitted to hospital across both groups.
Hard
- A120 patients
- B144 patients
- C132 patients
- D108 patients
63.In 2020 the WHO estimated that 680 000 people died from HIV-related causes, and 99 000 of these were children under 15. Calculate the percentage of HIV-related deaths in 2020 that were in children under 15. Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
Medium
- A16.56 %
- B14.56 %
- C13.56 %
- D15.56 %

Thẻ ghi nhớ

What are monoclonal antibodies?

Antibodies made by identical immune cells that are all clones of the same parent cell, so they are all identical and bind to the same antigen.

Which cells naturally produce antibodies?

Lymphocytes.

What is the shape of an antibody molecule?

A Y-shaped protein.

Why can monoclonal antibodies target a specific chemical or specific cell in the body?

They are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen, so they bind only to that antigen.

How are lymphocytes stimulated to make a particular antibody?

By exposing them to the specific antigen, which is injected into a mouse.

What is a hybridoma cell?

A cell made by combining a lymphocyte with a particular type of tumour cell.

Why are tumour cells used to make a hybridoma cell?

Tumour cells can divide repeatedly, giving the hybridoma the ability to keep dividing.

What two abilities does a hybridoma cell have?

It can both divide and produce the antibody.

Why is a hybridoma cell used instead of a lymphocyte alone to produce monoclonal antibodies?

A lymphocyte alone cannot divide repeatedly, so it could not produce large amounts of antibody.

What is done to a single hybridoma cell to produce large amounts of antibody?

It is cloned, dividing many times to make many identical cells that all produce the same antibody.

What happens to the antibody after the hybridoma cells have produced it?

A large amount of the antibody is collected and purified ready for use.

Why are these antibodies called 'monoclonal'?

Because they are produced by clones of a single cell, so they are all identical and are only one type of antibody.

Give three uses of monoclonal antibodies.

Pregnancy tests; measuring levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood or detecting pathogens in laboratories; and treating some diseases such as cancer.

How are monoclonal antibodies used in research to locate specific molecules?

They bind to specific molecules in a cell or tissue, and a fluorescent dye attached to them shows where the molecules are.

How can monoclonal antibodies be used to treat cancer?

The antibody is bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug or a chemical that stops cells growing and dividing, and delivers it to the cancer cells.

What is the advantage of attaching a drug to a monoclonal antibody for cancer treatment?

It delivers the substance to the cancer cells without harming other cells in the body.

How are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests?

They bind to the hormone HCG in the urine, which produces a visible result on the test strip.

Why have monoclonal antibodies not become as widely used as first hoped?

They create more side effects than expected, which has limited their use.

What is meant by antibody specificity?

Each antibody binds only to one particular antigen, matching its specific binding site.

Why are monoclonal antibodies used to detect pathogens in a laboratory?

They are specific to the antigens of a particular pathogen, so they bind to it and allow it to be identified.

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