Cell Respiration

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ATP: The Universal Energy Currency

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a small, soluble molecule that provides a short-term store of chemical energy for cells.
It is described as a universal energy currency: universal because all organisms use it, and a currency because it can be used for many different reactions and reused countless times.
ATP is a phosphorylated nucleotide made of a ribose sugar, an adenine base and three phosphate groups.
Hydrolysis of ATP produces ADP and a phosphate ion (π), releasing energy that can be used for processes such as DNA synthesis.
ATP is re-synthesised when ADP combines with an inorganic phosphate; this is an energy-requiring condensation reaction that releases water as a waste product.
ATP is relatively stable at cellular pH and only breaks down when the enzyme ATPase is present, so energy is not wasted.
ATP is not stored in large amounts; molecules such as glucose and fatty acids act as short-term energy stores, while glycogen, starch and triglycerides are long-term stores.
The hydrolysis of ATP is quick and easy, allowing cells to respond to a sudden increase in energy demand.

Uses of energy from respiration

Cell Respiration: An Overview

Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.
It is a catabolic process that happens in every cell and involves a series of enzyme-controlled reactions called a pathway.
Glucose is the main respiratory fuel; it can enter glycolysis directly, making it easier to oxidise than lipids and proteins.
Lipids and proteins can also be used as respiratory substrates but must undergo several changes before entering the respiratory pathway.
Energy is released in small, controlled steps rather than one uncontrolled step, which would cause cell damage and tissue death.
The energy released is used for anabolic processes, muscle contraction, active transport, moving molecules around the cell, and generating heat to maintain body temperature in warm-blooded animals.
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen, completely oxidises the substrate and yields about 36 ATP per glucose molecule.
Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen, partially oxidises glucose and yields only about 2 ATP per glucose molecule.

Balanced equation for aerobic respiration

Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and does not involve the mitochondria.
It occurs when oxygen supply cannot keep up with demand (e.g. vigorous exercise) or when oxygen cannot reach the organism (e.g. waterlogged soil).
Glucose is only partially oxidised, so only the first stage of respiration continues, producing a net yield of about 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
Plants and yeasts produce ethanol and carbon dioxide during anaerobic respiration.
Animals produce lactate during anaerobic respiration.
In animals, pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, with reduced NAD transferring its hydrogens to pyruvate.
Lactate can be oxidised back to pyruvate (requiring extra oxygen, an oxygen debt) or converted into glycogen for storage in the liver.
In yeast, pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal, producing CO2, and ethanal is then reduced to ethanol by alcohol dehydrogenase.

Anaerobic respiration in muscle

Oxidation and Reduction in Respiration

Oxidation is the loss of electrons, loss of hydrogen, gain of oxygen, and is exergonic (releases energy).
Reduction is the gain of electrons, gain of hydrogen, loss of oxygen, and is endergonic (absorbs energy).
Use OILRIG to remember: Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain.
NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is the primary electron carrier in respiration; FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is another.
Both NAD and FAD are coenzymes that act as oxidising agents, gaining electrons and hydrogen ions to become reduced NAD (NADH) and reduced FAD (FADH2).
NAD+ + 2e- + 2H+ → NADH + H+; FAD + 2e- + 2H+ → FADH2.
When reduced carriers lose electrons, they return to their original form: NADH → NAD+ + 2e- + 2H+.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the first stage of respiration and takes place in the cytoplasm.
It traps glucose in the cell by phosphorylating it and then splits the glucose molecule in two.
Phosphorylation: glucose (6C) is activated by phosphorylation from two ATP to form fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (6C), making it less stable and more reactive.
Lysis: fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (6C) splits into two molecules of triose phosphate (3C).
Oxidation: hydrogen is removed from triose phosphate by dehydrogenase and transferred to NAD, forming two reduced NAD; triose phosphate is oxidised to glycerate-3-phosphate.
ATP formation: phosphates are transferred from intermediate substrates to form four ATP through substrate-linked phosphorylation.
The net gain is 2 ATP (4 produced, 2 used) and 2 reduced NAD per glucose molecule.
The end product is two pyruvate (3C) molecules; each step is catalysed by a different enzyme.

The Link Reaction

The link reaction takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle.
It is an oxidative decarboxylation reaction: carbon dioxide is removed to produce a 2C molecule.
The 2C molecule is then oxidised (loss of hydrogen and 2 high-energy electrons), reducing NAD to NADH.
The acetyl compound combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA.
The products are acetyl CoA, carbon dioxide and reduced NAD.
Equation: pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA → acetyl CoA + carbon dioxide + reduced NAD.
Acetyl CoA is supplied to the Krebs cycle where aerobic respiration continues.

The Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and consists of a series of enzyme-controlled reactions.
Acetyl CoA (2C) enters the cycle and combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C); coenzyme A is released to be reused.
Citrate (6C) is converted back to oxaloacetate (4C) through a series of redox reactions.
Decarboxylation of citrate releases two CO2 as waste gas.
Oxidation (dehydrogenation) of citrate releases hydrogen atoms that reduce coenzymes: 3 NAD+ and 1 FAD → 3NADH + H+ and 1 FADH2.
Substrate-level phosphorylation transfers a phosphate from an intermediate to ADP, forming one ATP.
As the link reaction produces two acetyl CoA per glucose, the Krebs cycle occurs twice per glucose molecule.
Per glucose molecule, the Krebs cycle produces 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH + H+ and 2 FADH2.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The electron transport chain is made of a series of redox reactions via membrane proteins (electron carriers) embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Electron carriers are positioned close together so electrons can pass from carrier to carrier.
The cristae are impermeable to protons, so electron carriers pump protons across the membrane to establish a proton (electrochemical) gradient.
Energy is transferred when a pair of electrons is passed to the first carrier, converting reduced NAD back to NAD+.
As electrons are transported along the carriers, energy is released in a controlled manner and used to form ATP by adding π to ADP.
3 ATP molecules are produced for every molecule of reduced NAD, contributing to a total yield of 32 ATP per glucose molecule during aerobic respiration.
Chemiosmosis: protons accumulate in the intermembrane space and return to the matrix through ATP synthase, which catalyses phosphorylation of ADP to generate ATP.
Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, is reduced by electrons, and combines with protons to form water.

Respiratory Substrates: Lipids and Carbohydrates

Lipids are an excellent source of energy, transferring more than twice the energy per gram as carbohydrates when oxidised.
This is because lipids have fewer oxygen atoms per molecule than carbohydrates, making their hydrogen and carbon atoms more oxidisable.
Lipids are good energy storage molecules because they are insoluble and do not decrease the water potential of a cell.
Lipids can be used as a source of metabolic water for desert animals, as their oxidation produces more water than carbohydrates.
Glycolysis and anaerobic respiration can only occur if carbohydrate is the substrate.
To enter respiratory pathways, lipids must first be broken down into fatty acids, which are further broken down into 2C acetyl groups.
These acetyl groups combine with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA, which can enter the Krebs cycle.

Investigating Respiration: Skills

The rate of cell respiration varies with metabolic activity, organism size, oxygen supply, substrate supply, temperature and pH.
Respirometers measure the rate of oxygen consumption by live organisms such as seeds or invertebrates.
A respirometer contains a sealed container with live organisms, an alkaline solution (e.g. potassium hydroxide) to absorb CO2, and a capillary tube with a manometer fluid.
As organisms respire, oxygen is absorbed and CO2 is absorbed by the alkali, reducing air pressure and causing the manometer fluid to move towards the organisms.
Respirometers must be kept in temperature-controlled conditions (e.g. a thermostatically controlled water bath) because temperature fluctuations affect air pressure.
Repeat readings should be carried out to identify and eliminate anomalies and to give a reliable mean.
The volume of oxygen consumed can be calculated using the formula πr²h, where r is the radius of the capillary tube lumen and h is the distance moved by the manometer fluid.
Oxygen sensors and CO2 monitors can measure gas concentrations in real-time without exposing subjects to hazards such as strong alkalis.

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1.Which molecule is the universal energy currency of the cell?
Easy
- AATP
- BGlucose
- CNADH
- DADP
2.Which of the following is NOT a component of ATP?
Easy
- ADeoxyribose sugar
- BRibose sugar
- CAdenine base
- DThree phosphate groups
3.When ATP is hydrolysed, which products are formed?
Medium
- AADP and a phosphate ion
- BAMP and two phosphate ions
- CAdenosine and three phosphate ions
- DADP and water
4.Which statement about the synthesis of ATP from ADP and π is correct?
Medium
- AIt is a condensation reaction that releases water
- BIt is a hydrolysis reaction that uses water
- CIt is an exergonic reaction that releases energy
- DIt occurs only in the mitochondria
5.ATP is stored in large quantities in cells for long-term energy storage.
Easy
True or false?
6.Which of the following are properties of ATP that make it suitable as an energy source for biological processes? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AIt releases a small but sufficient quantity of energy
- BIt is relatively stable at cellular pH
- CIt can be recycled
- DIt is insoluble in water
- EIt is a large molecule that cannot move easily
7.Match each stage of aerobic respiration with its correct location in a eukaryotic cell.
Medium
- Glycolysis
- Link reaction
- Krebs cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation
- Cytoplasm
- Mitochondrial matrix
- Inner mitochondrial membrane
8.Place the stages of aerobic respiration in the correct sequence.
Medium
- Glycolysis
- Link reaction
- Krebs cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation

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9.Which of the following is the correct balanced chemical equation for aerobic respiration?
Easy
- AC6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
- BC6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
- CC6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
- DC6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
10.Which of the following is the correct word equation for anaerobic respiration in a human striated muscle cell?
Easy
- Aglucose → lactate
- Bglucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
- Cglucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
- Dglucose → pyruvate + carbon dioxide
11.Which of the following are true about anaerobic respiration in yeast? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AIt produces ethanol.
- BIt produces carbon dioxide.
- CIt produces lactate.
- DIt requires oxygen.
- EIt yields a small amount of ATP.
12.Which molecule is decarboxylated during the link reaction?
Medium
- APyruvate
- BAcetyl CoA
- CCitrate
- DOxaloacetate
13.Which of the following are products of the Krebs cycle per glucose molecule? (select all that apply)
Medium
- A4 CO2
- B2 ATP
- C6 NADH + H+
- D2 FADH2
- E2 pyruvate
14.Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.
Easy
True or false?
15.In a respirometer, an alkaline solution such as potassium hydroxide is added to the sealed container. What is the purpose of this solution?
Medium
- AIt absorbs carbon dioxide released by the respiring organisms.
- BIt absorbs oxygen so that the organisms respire anaerobically.
- CIt releases carbon dioxide to increase the pressure in the container.
- DIt absorbs water vapour to prevent condensation in the capillary tube.
16.Which of the following should be controlled or carried out to obtain reliable results when using a respirometer to measure the rate of respiration? (select all that apply)
Hard
- AKeep the apparatus in a thermostatically controlled water bath.
- BUse a control tube containing an equal volume of inert material in place of the organisms.
- CRepeat readings for each set of conditions and calculate a mean.
- DAllow the apparatus to equilibrate before taking measurements.
- EUse a larger volume of alkali to increase the rate of respiration.
17.The diagram shows a respirometer set up to measure oxygen consumption of a lizard. The manometer fluid moves towards the organism. What does this movement indicate?
Hard
- AOxygen is being consumed and carbon dioxide is being absorbed, reducing the pressure inside the container.
- BCarbon dioxide is being produced faster than oxygen is consumed, increasing the pressure inside the container.
- CThe lizard is releasing heat, which expands the air and pushes the fluid.
- DThe alkali is releasing oxygen, which increases the pressure inside the container.
18.In an experiment using a respirometer, the water droplet moved 3.0 cm in 20 minutes. The capillary tube has an internal radius of 0.15 mm. Which of the following is the volume of oxygen consumed per minute? (Use π = 3.14)
Medium
- A0.106 mm³ min⁻¹
- B0.021 mm³ min⁻¹
- C0.424 mm³ min⁻¹
- D0.530 mm³ min⁻¹
19.A respirometer is used to measure oxygen consumption of germinating seeds at different temperatures. The results show that as temperature increases from 10 °C to 30 °C, the rate of oxygen consumption increases. What is the best explanation for this?
Medium
- AThe enzymes of respiration have a higher kinetic energy and more collisions occur.
- BThe seeds are photosynthesising more at higher temperatures.
- CThe solubility of oxygen in the air decreases at higher temperatures.
- DThe seeds are losing more water, which increases respiration.
20.Which of the following statements about the role of oxygen in the electron transport chain are correct? (select all that apply)
Hard
- AOxygen acts as the final electron acceptor.
- BOxygen combines with protons to form water.
- CWithout oxygen, reduced NAD and FAD cannot be oxidised, so the chain stops.
- DOxygen directly phosphorylates ADP to form ATP.
- EOxygen is reduced by electrons from the chain.
21.Place the following events of the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis in the correct sequence.
Medium
- Electrons are passed along carriers, releasing energy.
- Protons are pumped into the intermembrane space.
- Protons flow back through ATP synthase.
- ATP is synthesised from ADP and π.
22.A student set up a respirometer with a green plant in the dark. After 24 hours, the manometer fluid had moved. Which of the following best explains the result?
Hard
- AThe plant is respiring, consuming oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide which is absorbed by the alkali.
- BThe plant is photosynthesising, producing oxygen which increases the pressure.
- CThe plant is not respiring because it is in the dark.
- DThe alkali is absorbing oxygen, causing the fluid to move.
23.In a respirometer, the carbon dioxide produced by respiration is absorbed by an alkali, so the movement of fluid is due to oxygen uptake.
Easy
True or false?
24.Which of the following is the correct balanced equation for the synthesis of ATP from ADP?
Medium
- AADP + π → ATP + H2O
- BATP + H2O → ADP + π
- CADP + H2O → ATP + π
- DATP + π → ADP + H2O
25.Match each stage of respiration with its correct location in a eukaryotic cell.
Medium
- Glycolysis
- Link reaction
- Krebs cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation
- Cytoplasm
- Mitochondrial matrix
- Inner mitochondrial membrane
26.In a respirometer experiment, a control tube containing an equal volume of inert material is often set up alongside the experimental tube. What is the main purpose of this control tube?
Medium
- ATo compensate for changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature
- BTo absorb carbon dioxide produced by the organisms
- CTo provide a source of oxygen for the organisms
- DTo measure the rate of respiration of the organisms
27.A student sets up a respirometer with germinating seeds. After equilibration, the manometer fluid moves 3.0 cm in 10 minutes. The capillary tube has an internal diameter of 0.40 mm. Using π = 3.14, what is the average rate of oxygen consumption in mm³ min⁻¹? (Volume of a cylinder = πr²h)
Medium
- A0.38 mm³ min⁻¹
- B3.8 mm³ min⁻¹
- C0.038 mm³ min⁻¹
- D1.2 mm³ min⁻¹
28.Which of the following statements about the link reaction and the Krebs cycle are correct? (select all that apply)
Hard
- AThe link reaction produces acetyl CoA, CO₂, and reduced NAD.
- BThe Krebs cycle occurs in the cytoplasm.
- CThe Krebs cycle produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
- DThe link reaction is an oxidative decarboxylation reaction.
- EThe Krebs cycle produces 3 NADH per glucose molecule.
29.In a respirometer, the alkaline solution absorbs carbon dioxide, so the movement of the manometer fluid directly measures oxygen consumption.
Easy
True or false?
30.Match each stage of aerobic respiration with the correct number of ATP molecules produced per glucose molecule (net yield).
Medium
- Glycolysis
- Link reaction
- Krebs cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation
- 2 ATP
- 0 ATP
- 32 ATP
31.Place the following steps of glycolysis in the correct sequence.
Medium
- Phosphorylation of glucose to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
- Lysis of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose phosphate molecules
- Oxidation of triose phosphate to glycerate-3-phosphate, forming reduced NAD
- Formation of ATP by substrate-linked phosphorylation
- Production of two pyruvate molecules
32.At which temperature is the rate of oxygen consumption highest?
Medium
- A10 °C
- B20 °C
- C30 °C
- D40 °C
33.Which of the following best explains the decrease in oxygen consumption above 35 °C?
Hard
- AEnzymes involved in respiration denature.
- BThe seeds run out of glucose.
- COxygen becomes less soluble at higher temperatures.
- DThe alkaline solution absorbs less carbon dioxide.
34.A respirometer is set up with a green plant in the dark. After 24 hours, the manometer fluid has moved towards the plant. Which of the following best explains this result?
Hard
- AThe plant is respiring aerobically, consuming oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide which is absorbed by the alkali.
- BThe plant is photosynthesising, producing oxygen and causing the fluid to move.
- CThe plant is respiring anaerobically, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide.
- DThe plant is losing water vapour, which decreases the pressure.
35.Which of the following is the best definition of oxidation in terms of electrons?
Easy
- ALoss of electrons
- BGain of electrons
- CLoss of protons
- DGain of protons
36.During glycolysis, glucose is phosphorylated at the start of the pathway. What is the main reason for this phosphorylation?
Easy
- ATo make the glucose molecule more reactive and less stable
- BTo convert glucose directly into pyruvate
- CTo produce ATP by substrate-linked phosphorylation
- DTo allow glucose to leave the cell
37.The link reaction takes place in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.
Easy
True or false?
38.Match each molecule with its correct role in respiration.
Medium
- NAD+
- FAD
- Coenzyme A
- ATP synthase
- Oxidising agent that gains electrons and hydrogen ions
- Electron carrier used in the Krebs cycle
- Carries acetyl groups to the Krebs cycle
- Enzyme that catalyses phosphorylation of ADP using a proton gradient
39.Which of the following statements about oxidation and reduction are correct? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AOxidation is the loss of electrons.
- BReduction is the gain of electrons.
- COxidation is exergonic and releases energy.
- DReduction involves the loss of hydrogen.
- EOxidation involves the gain of oxygen.
40.Place the following events of glycolysis in the correct sequence.
Medium
- Phosphorylation of glucose to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
- Lysis of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose phosphate molecules
- Oxidation of triose phosphate to glycerate-3-phosphate, reducing NAD
- Substrate-linked phosphorylation producing four ATP
- Formation of two pyruvate molecules
41.Complete the word equation for aerobic respiration.
Easy
glucose + ____ → carbon dioxide + ____
42.Name the enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of ATP.
Medium
43.How many net ATP molecules are produced per glucose molecule during glycolysis?
Medium
44.A respirometer was set up with germinating mung beans. After equilibration, the liquid in the capillary moved 2.3 cm in 25 minutes. The capillary tube had an internal diameter of 0.30 mm. Calculate the average rate of respiration, measured as the rate of oxygen uptake, in mm³ min⁻¹. Use π = 3.141. Give your answer to 3 decimal places.
Medium
45.A respirometer is set up with germinating seeds. After equilibration, the manometer fluid moves 2.0 cm in 30 minutes. The capillary tube has an internal diameter of 0.40 mm. Calculate the average rate of oxygen consumption in mm³ min⁻¹. Use π = 3.14 and give your answer to 3 significant figures.
Medium
46.Name the solution added to a respirometer to absorb carbon dioxide.
Medium
47.Name the variable that must be kept constant in a respirometer experiment to prevent changes in air pressure affecting the results.
Easy
48.Complete the sentence about the link reaction using the correct terms.
Medium
In the link reaction, pyruvate is ____ and ____ to form acetyl CoA, carbon dioxide and reduced NAD.
49.In an experiment, a respirometer recorded that the manometer fluid moved 4.5 cm in 15 minutes. The capillary tube has an internal diameter of 0.50 mm. Calculate the volume of oxygen consumed per hour in mm³ h⁻¹. Use π = 3.14 and give your answer to 3 significant figures.
Hard
50.Complete the equation for the synthesis of ATP from ADP using the correct terms.
Easy
ADP + ____ → ATP + ____
51.A respirometer capillary tube has an internal radius of 0.20 mm. After equilibration, the manometer fluid moves 18 mm in 30 minutes. Using π = 3.14, calculate the average rate of oxygen consumption in mm³ min⁻¹. Give your answer to 3 decimal places.
Medium
52.Name the enzyme that catalyses the conversion of pyruvate to lactate in a human muscle cell.
Medium
53.Describe how ATP is re-synthesised from ADP and π in a cell.
Hard
54.State two ways in which the properties of ATP make it a suitable source of energy for biological processes.
Medium
55.Describe the steps involved in the link reaction.
Hard
56.Describe how you would use a respirometer to measure the rate of oxygen consumption of a small invertebrate. Include how you would obtain reliable data.
Medium
57.Explain why the electron transport chain cannot continue in the absence of oxygen.
Hard
58.How many net ATP molecules are produced per glucose molecule during glycolysis?
Medium
- A2 ATP
- B1 ATP
- C3 ATP
- D4 ATP
59.A respirometer was set up with germinating mung beans. After equilibration, the liquid in the capillary moved 2.3 cm in 25 minutes. The capillary tube had an internal diameter of 0.30 mm. Calculate the average rate of respiration, measured as the rate of oxygen uptake, in mm³ min⁻¹. Use π = 3.141. Give your answer to 3 decimal places.
Medium
- A2.065 mm³ min⁻¹
- B-0.935 mm³ min⁻¹
- C1.065 mm³ min⁻¹
- D0.065 mm³ min⁻¹
60.A respirometer is set up with germinating seeds. After equilibration, the manometer fluid moves 2.0 cm in 30 minutes. The capillary tube has an internal diameter of 0.40 mm. Calculate the average rate of oxygen consumption in mm³ min⁻¹. Use π = 3.14 and give your answer to 3 significant figures.
Medium
- A-0.9162 mm³ min⁻¹
- B1.0838 mm³ min⁻¹
- C2.0838 mm³ min⁻¹
- D0.0838 mm³ min⁻¹
61.In an experiment, a respirometer recorded that the manometer fluid moved 4.5 cm in 15 minutes. The capillary tube has an internal diameter of 0.50 mm. Calculate the volume of oxygen consumed per hour in mm³ h⁻¹. Use π = 3.14 and give your answer to 3 significant figures.
Hard
- A35.3 mm³ h⁻¹
- B141 mm³ h⁻¹
- C8.83 mm³ h⁻¹
- D3530 mm³ h⁻¹
62.A respirometer capillary tube has an internal radius of 0.20 mm. After equilibration, the manometer fluid moves 18 mm in 30 minutes. Using π = 3.14, calculate the average rate of oxygen consumption in mm³ min⁻¹. Give your answer to 3 decimal places.
Medium
- A0.075 mm³ min⁻¹
- B2.075 mm³ min⁻¹
- C-0.925 mm³ min⁻¹
- D1.075 mm³ min⁻¹

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