Adaptation To Environment

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Habitats

A habitat is the place where an organism lives.
Any one habitat contains many species which together form a community.
Habitats can be described in terms of geographical location, e.g. polar habitat is located at the North and South Poles.
Habitats can be described in terms of ecosystem type, e.g. grassland habitat occurs in many locations, including prairies in North America and savannahs in Africa.
Habitats can be described by both location and ecosystem type, e.g. North American grassland, Arctic polar habitat, Sahara desert, and UK wetland.

Abiotic Factors

Abiotic factors are non-living factors that affect organisms within their habitat.
Examples include light intensity and wavelength, temperature, turbidity (cloudiness of water), humidity, soil or water pH, soil or water salinity, soil composition, and oxygen or carbon dioxide concentration.
Abiotic factors affect living organisms in specific ways: light is required by plants for photosynthesis; temperature affects the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions; water is required by all living organisms for survival.
Different plant species require different soil pH levels and nutrient concentrations.
High wind speeds can increase water loss by evaporation from the leaves of plants.
Carbon dioxide is needed by plants for photosynthesis, and oxygen is needed by all organisms that carry out aerobic respiration.

Adaptations of a fennec fox

Adaptations to Abiotic Factors: Sand Dune Grass

Marram grass is commonly found on sand dunes, a habitat with low water availability, high salinity, and low nutrient levels.
Marram grass is a xerophyte, a group of plants adapted to survive in dry conditions.
Xerophytes face a steep concentration gradient between the inside of leaves and the surrounding air, causing rapid water evaporation from leaf cells.
Some marram grass leaf adaptations raise the humidity of the air surrounding the leaf, reducing the steep concentration gradient and reducing water loss.
Leaves are rolled up to reduce exposure to wind and trap water vapour inside.
Stomata are sunken in pits to trap water vapour, and the inner leaf surface is covered in tiny hairs which also trap water vapour.
Marram grass leaves have a thick waxy cuticle on their outer surface to reduce evaporation.

Adaptations to Abiotic Factors: Mangrove Trees

Mangrove swamps are tropical, coastal habitats frequently submerged in sea water, with high salinity, low fresh water availability, and low oxygen availability.
Mangrove roots underwater cannot take in oxygen for respiration, and the salty water creates a risk of water loss from roots by osmosis.
Mangroves deal with low oxygen by having aerial root systems; parts of roots above water take in oxygen for respiration.
Red mangroves have prop roots that also provide stability in unstable soil and shelter for marine animals.
Black mangroves have pneumatophores that grow vertically upwards out of water-logged soil.
Red mangroves have cells that do not allow salt entry into water-transport systems, allowing uptake of fresh water and preventing water loss by osmosis.
Black mangroves take salt water into their cells and excrete excess salt through salt glands in their leaves.

Species Distribution and Range of Tolerance

Abiotic factors in a habitat can act as limiting factors for species distribution.
Species exist with a range of tolerance: certain conditions are ideal (optimum), but some variation can be tolerated.
Species will not be found in areas with abiotic conditions outside their range of tolerance.
Species adapted to extreme conditions may have an especially wide range of tolerance, allowing them to live where other species cannot.
Such extreme species often have an environmental optimum higher or lower than average, e.g. marram grass has a lower optimum for water availability.
Extreme species do well where competition from other species is low, but may do less well in moderate environments due to competition.
Species have a range of tolerance for all abiotic factors, and these factors interact to determine distribution.

Species Distribution: Skills

Distribution refers to where a species is found within an ecosystem.
A limiting factor is any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the growth of organisms.
Transect sampling measures the change in species abundance along an environmental gradient.
A transect is a line laid out across a site; a tape measure is laid out along the gradient and samples are taken along the line.
Types of transect include continuous line transect (every species touching the tape is recorded), interrupted line transect (species at regular intervals are recorded), continuous belt transect (quadrats placed end-to-end), and interrupted belt transect (quadrats at regular intervals).
Sampling involves taking measurements from a small area to represent a larger area; it saves time and samples must be representative with a large enough sample size.
When investigating the impact of an abiotic factor, it is important to measure the relevant abiotic factor at each sample site along the transect.

Measuring Abiotic Factors

Air temperature is measured with a thermometer; rainfall with a rain gauge (funnel collecting water in a measuring cylinder).
Humidity is measured with a hydrometer, an electronic device measuring water vapour content of air.
Dissolved oxygen is measured with an electronic oxygen sensor.
Water turbidity is measured with a turbidity meter (light scattered by particles) or a Secchi disc lowered until no longer visible.
Light intensity is measured with an electronic light meter.
Landscape relief is measured using contour lines on a map or a GPS; site aspect with a compass; slope incline with a clinometer.
Soil or water pH is measured with indicator solution; soil water content by the difference in mass before and after drying a soil sample.

Representing Results: Kite Diagrams

Kite diagrams can show both distribution and abundance of species along a transect.
The distribution of a species is shown by its position along a central horizontal line in each section.
Each section of a kite diagram represents a different species.
The distance along the transect is given on the x-axis, parallel to the horizontal line.
The abundance of a species is shown by the width of the 'kite' around the central horizontal line; the shape extends an equal distance on each side.
Additional sections can show changes in abiotic factors at different points along the transect, e.g. elevation or soil pH.

Coral Reef Formation and Distribution

Corals result from a symbiotic relationship between a coral polyp (animal) and zooxanthellae algae.
The polyp provides shelter and protection; the algae carry out photosynthesis and produce carbon compounds such as carbohydrates.
Some coral polyps secrete calcium carbonate which builds up in layers to form a hard outer structure; over time deposits from thousands of individuals form a coral reef.
Reef-building corals are limited to the tropics and subtropics; non-reef-building species can be found in other regions.
Coral has a narrow range of tolerance for abiotic factors including water depth, pH, salinity, water clarity, and temperature.
Water depth: corals grow only at shallow depths where light penetrates for zooxanthellae photosynthesis.
pH: calcium carbonate dissolves at low pH; increased carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning lowers ocean pH and reduces coral growth.
Salinity: corals need salty water within a 32−42% range; freshwater run-off can limit growth.
Water clarity: must be good for light penetration; sediment and pollution reduce clarity and limit growth.
Temperature: corals tolerate roughly 20−28 °C, growing best above 23 °C; rising sea temperatures cause polyps to expel algae, leading to coral bleaching.

Biomes and Their Distribution

A biome is a large community of plants and animals that has developed as a result of environmental factors.
Biomes occur over large geographical areas and are usually named after their dominant vegetation type.
Examples include temperate rainforest, tropical rainforest, temperate deciduous forest, boreal/coniferous forest (taiga), grassland, tundra, and desert.
Biome distribution is affected by abiotic factors; average temperatures and rainfall patterns are significant in determining biome development.
For any given combination of temperature and rainfall, a specific biome will result; this can be plotted on a climograph with mean annual rainfall and temperature on its axes.
Climographs show distinct boundaries between biomes, but in reality there is a gradual shift from one biome to another.
Rainfall and temperature are not the only factors influencing biome development; other variables such as soil type and animal grazing may play important roles.
Because neither rainfall nor temperature is an independent or dependent variable, the allocation of temperature and rainfall to the graph axes may vary.

Biomes: Climate and Community Features

Tropical forest: annual rainfall 2000−10 000 mm; temperatures consistently 20−25 °C; nutrient-poor soil due to lack of seasonal leaf fall; layers of vegetation (canopy, undercanopy); highly productive; very high biodiversity.
Temperate forest: annual rainfall 750−1500 mm; seasonal but no extreme temperatures; fertile soil due to leaf fall each autumn; dominant deciduous trees; productive during part of the year; high biodiversity.
Taiga (conifer forest): annual rainfall 300−900 mm but high snowfall; very short summer growing period; temperatures −40 to 20 °C; dominant coniferous (evergreen) trees; low productivity; small number of well-adapted species.
Grassland: annual rainfall 500−950 mm; dry and wet seasons; temperatures −20 to 30 °C; dominant grasses; not enough water for significant tree growth; low productivity; grazing animals and a small number of top predators.
Tundra: annual rainfall 150−250 mm; dark winter periods and frozen soil; temperatures −50 to 18 °C; not enough water, light, or warmth for tree growth; low productivity; hibernating or migrating animal species.
Hot desert: annual rainfall less than 250 mm; hot days (up to 49 °C) and cold nights (down to 0 °C); very low productivity due to lack of water; a small number of well-adapted species.

Adaptations to Biomes

Adaptations are traits or characteristics that increase survival chances in a specific environment.
Adaptations come about by the process of natural selection.
Species are adapted to the abiotic and biotic features of the biome in which they live.
Saguaro cactus (hot desert): stem has a thick waxy cuticle to reduce water loss; spines instead of leaves reduce surface area for transpiration and reduce grazing; stem cells expand to store water; deep tap root accesses deep water and shallow surface roots absorb rainfall quickly.
Kangaroo rat (hot desert): spends daylight hours in underground burrows (behavioural adaptation); extracts enough water from diet; produces highly concentrated urine; can go without drinking water for extended periods.
Kapok tree (tropical rainforest): rapid growth allows it to outcompete other species by growing tall quickly to absorb sunlight; wide buttress roots provide a sturdy base.
Orchid mantis (tropical rainforest): adult female looks like an orchid flower, attracting insect pollinators as prey (mimicry); believed to be an 'aggressive mimic' more attractive than surrounding flowers; male is smaller and plainer for camouflage among stems and branches.
Regions with similar abiotic factors contain the same biome, e.g. desert occurs in Africa, North and South America, and Australia; ecosystems in equivalent biomes contain similar communities due to convergent evolution.

Camouflage as an adaptation

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1.Which option correctly lists some abiotic features of an ecosystem?
Easy
- AMineral ions, light intensity, temperature
- BCompetition, predation
- CpH, producers, mineral ions
- DWind speed, decomposition, mineral ions
2.Which of the statements about the term habitat is/are correct? I. A habitat is the place where a community of organisms lives II. A habitat is the place where an individual organism lives III. Habitats can only be described in terms of their geographical location
Easy
- AI and II only
- BII only
- CII and III only
- DI, II and III
3.Which of the statements about biomes is correct?
Easy
- ABiome distribution is affected primarily by biotic factors.
- BFor any given temperature and rainfall pattern there are a range of ecosystem types that can develop.
- CA tropical rainforest biome will have high annual rainfall and low levels of biodiversity.
- DAverage temperatures and rainfall patterns are significant factors in determining the development of a biome.
4.Which of the following is a hazard to consider in a risk assessment when measuring abiotic factors in a natural environment?
Easy
- AUneven ground.
- BSlipping on wet rock.
- CCutting oneself on a sharp rock.
- DBreaking an ankle by falling over.
5.How could levels of dissolved oxygen in a pond be measured?
Easy
- ApH indicator
- BTurbidity meter
- CElectronic sensor
- DClinometer
6.Which of the following statements about adaptations to abiotic factors is correct?
Medium
- ASome grasses are able to release chemicals that attract the predators of insect herbivore species.
- BSome grasses are adapted to increase the water vapour concentration gradient between their leaves and the surrounding air.
- CMangroves are adapted to survive in an environment with limited fresh water availability.
- DMangroves deal with low oxygen availability by absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere via their stomata.
7.Which row correctly describes an example of an adaptation for survival in the given biome?
Medium
- ATropical forest — Thick waxy cuticles on leaves
- BTemperate forest — Nocturnal behaviour
- CTaiga — Wide buttress roots
- DHot desert — The ability to extract water from food
8.A habitat is the place where an organism lives.
Easy
True or false?

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9.Biome distribution is affected primarily by biotic factors.
Easy
True or false?
10.Mangroves deal with low oxygen availability by absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere via their stomata.
Easy
True or false?
11.A tropical rainforest biome will have high annual rainfall and low levels of biodiversity.
Easy
True or false?
12.Which of the following are abiotic factors that can influence the distribution of species in a habitat? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ALight intensity
- BPredation
- CSoil pH
- DCompetition
- ESalinity
13.Which of the following statements about limiting factors and range of tolerance are correct? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AA limiting factor is any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the growth of organisms.
- BSpecies will not be found in areas with abiotic conditions outside their range of tolerance.
- CAll species have the same range of tolerance for a given abiotic factor.
- DSpecies adapted to extreme conditions may have a wide range of tolerance.
- EThe optimum is the condition at which population size is zero.
14.Match each abiotic factor with the correct method of measurement.
Medium
- Air temperature
- Dissolved oxygen
- Water turbidity
- Slope incline
- Soil or water pH
- Thermometer
- Electronic oxygen sensor
- Turbidity meter or Secchi disc
- Clinometer
- Indicator solution
15.Place the following steps of a transect study in the correct order.
Medium
- Lay out a tape measure along the environmental gradient.
- Record the species touching the line at regular intervals.
- Measure the relevant abiotic factor at each sample site.
- Analyse the data to determine species distribution.
16.Which of the following are adaptations of marram grass to its sand dune habitat? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ALeaves rolled up to reduce exposure to wind
- BStomata sunken in pits to trap water vapour
- CThick waxy cuticle on the outer surface of leaves
- DAerial roots that grow vertically upwards out of water-logged soil
- EWide buttress roots for stability in shallow soil
17.Place the following steps of an interrupted belt transect study in the correct order.
Medium
- Lay out a tape measure along the environmental gradient.
- Place quadrats at regular intervals along the tape measure.
- Identify and count the species within each quadrat.
- Measure the relevant abiotic factor at each quadrat location.
18.Which of the following statements about the range of tolerance are correct? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ASpecies will not be found in areas with abiotic conditions outside their range of tolerance.
- BSpecies adapted to extreme conditions often have a wide range of tolerance.
- CMarram grass has a higher optimum level for water availability than other plant species.
- DSpecies with an extreme environmental optimum may do less well in moderate environments due to competition.
- EThe range of tolerance is the same for all abiotic factors for a given species.
19.A student investigated the distribution of a plant species along a soil moisture gradient. The plant was abundant in the middle of the transect but absent at both ends. What is the best explanation for this pattern?
Hard
- AThe plant has a narrow range of tolerance for soil moisture.
- BThe plant is outcompeted by other species at the extremes.
- CThe plant has a wide range of tolerance for soil moisture.
- DThe plant is adapted to extreme conditions.
20.Which of the following are adaptations of mangrove trees to their environment? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AProp roots that provide stability in unstable soil
- BPneumatophores that grow vertically upwards from water-logged soil
- CSalt glands in leaves that excrete excess salt
- DCells in roots that prevent salt entry and water loss
- ELeaves with a thick waxy cuticle to reduce water loss
21.Match each biome with its typical annual rainfall range.
Medium
- Tropical forest
- Temperate forest
- Taiga
- Hot desert
- 2000–10000 mm
- 750–1500 mm
- 300–900 mm
- <250 mm
22.A climograph shows that a particular biome develops at a mean annual rainfall of 300 cm and a mean annual temperature of 15 °C. Which biome is this?
Hard
- ATemperate rainforest
- BTropical seasonal forest
- CTaiga
- DHot desert
23.Which of the following statements about coral reef formation are correct? (select all that apply)
Hard
- ACorals can only grow at shallow depths where light can penetrate for photosynthesis by zooxanthellae.
- BThe hard outer layer of corals is made of calcium carbonate, which dissolves at low pH.
- CCorals have a narrow range of tolerance for temperature, salinity, and water clarity.
- DCorals can survive in fresh water for extended periods.
- ECorals grow best in water temperatures below 20 °C.
24.Place the following events in the formation of a coral reef in the correct order.
Medium
- Coral polyps secrete calcium carbonate.
- Layers of calcium carbonate build up over time.
- Thousands of individuals form a hard outer structure.
- A coral reef is formed.
25.Which of the following is an example of a behavioural adaptation to a hot desert environment?
Medium
- AA kangaroo rat spending daylight hours in underground burrows.
- BA saguaro cactus having a thick waxy cuticle.
- CA kangaroo rat producing highly concentrated urine.
- DA saguaro cactus having spines instead of leaves.
26.Which of the following are examples of adaptations to tropical rainforest conditions? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ARapid growth to reach the canopy for sunlight
- BWide buttress roots for stability
- CMimicry of flowers to attract prey
- DNocturnal behaviour to avoid daytime heat
- EExtracting water from food
27.Which of the following best defines a habitat?
Medium
- AThe place where an organism lives
- BA large community of plants and animals
- CAll the populations in an area
- DThe non-living factors in an environment
28.Which of the following is a biotic factor?
Medium
- APredation
- BTemperature
- CSunlight
- DMineral availability
29.A transect is used to measure the change in species abundance along an environmental gradient.
Easy
True or false?
30.Marram grass is a xerophyte adapted to survive in dry conditions.
Easy
True or false?
31.Mangrove trees absorb oxygen from the atmosphere through their stomata to deal with low oxygen availability in water-logged soil.
Medium
True or false?
32.A student records the following features of a rocky shore: salinity, wave action, the number of limpets, and the presence of seaweed. Which of these is an abiotic factor?
Easy
- ASalinity and wave action
- BThe number of limpets and the presence of seaweed
- CSalinity and the number of limpets
- DWave action and the presence of seaweed
33.In a study of a rocky shore, a transect was laid from the high-water mark to the low-water mark. Which of the following is the most appropriate way to record the distribution of a sessile invertebrate species along this transect?
Medium
- ACount the number of individuals in quadrats placed at regular intervals along the tape
- BCapture, mark, and release individuals at each metre along the tape
- CCount the number of individuals swimming past a fixed point over five minutes
- DEstimate the total population size using the Lincoln index
34.A student measures the water content of a soil sample by weighing it before and after drying. The fresh sample has a mass of 120 g and the dried sample has a mass of 90 g. What is the percentage water content of the soil?
Medium
- A25.0%
- B30.0%
- C33.3%
- D75.0%
35.A climograph shows mean annual rainfall on the x-axis and mean annual temperature on the y-axis. Which of the following statements about climographs are correct? (select all that apply)
Medium
- AA mean annual rainfall of 200 cm and a mean annual temperature of 25 °C would result in tropical seasonal forest
- BA mean annual rainfall of 300 cm and a mean annual temperature of 15 °C would result in temperate rainforest
- CA mean annual rainfall of 100 cm and a mean annual temperature of 0 °C would result in taiga (boreal forest)
- DThe axes must always have rainfall on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis
- EClimographs show a sharp boundary between biomes, exactly matching reality
36.A climograph can be used to predict the biome that will develop at a given mean annual rainfall and temperature.
Easy
True or false?
37.Place the following steps in the correct order for investigating the effect of soil water content on plant distribution using an interrupted belt transect.
Medium
- Lay out a tape measure along the soil water gradient
- Place a quadrat at the first marked interval and record the plant species present
- Measure the soil water content at that quadrat location
- Repeat quadrat placement and measurements at regular intervals along the tape
- Analyse the data to relate plant distribution to soil water content
38.A student plans to investigate how soil water content affects the distribution of a plant species across a sand dune. Which of the following steps should be included in the method? (select all that apply)
Medium
- ALay a tape measure along the gradient from the dune slack to the dune crest
- BPlace quadrats at regular intervals along the tape measure
- CRecord every species touching the tape measure continuously
- DMeasure soil water content at each quadrat location by comparing the mass of a fresh soil sample with its mass after drying
- EMeasure the salinity of the sea water at the low-water mark
39.A scientist wants to estimate the abundance of a non-motile invertebrate species at different water depths in a marine habitat. Which sampling method is most appropriate?
Medium
- AMark-release-recapture using nets
- BQuadrat sampling along a transect from the shore to deeper water
- CDirect observation using binoculars from a boat
- DCollecting water samples and counting organisms under a microscope
40.A group of students investigated the distribution of limpets on a rocky shore. They laid a tape measure from the high-water mark to the low-water mark and recorded the number of limpets in a 0.25 m² quadrat every 2 m. Which of the following is the most significant improvement to increase the reliability of their results?
Hard
- AUse a larger quadrat at each sampling point
- BTake multiple quadrat samples at each distance and calculate a mean
- CRecord the limpets only at the low-water mark
- DMeasure the temperature at each sampling point
41.Complete the definition of a habitat.
Easy
A habitat is the place where an ____ lives.
42.Name the two main abiotic factors that determine which biome develops in a location.
Medium
The two main abiotic factors are average ____ and ____ patterns.
43.Coral reefs have a range of tolerance of roughly 20–28 °C, though they grow best above 23 °C. What is the upper limit of this temperature range in °C?
Medium
44.What is the name of the specialised protractor used to measure slope incline?
Easy
45.What term describes the group of plants that are adapted to survive in dry conditions?
Medium
46.Coral reefs have a range of tolerance of roughly 20–28 °C. What is the upper limit of this temperature range in °C?
Medium
47.Mangrove trees grow best in a salinity range between 3 and 27 parts per thousand (ppt). What is the lower limit of this optimal range in ppt?
Medium
48.Complete the definition of a biome.
Medium
A biome is a large community of ____ and ____ that has developed as a result of environmental factors.
49.Complete the sentence about limiting factors.
Medium
A limiting factor is any biotic or abiotic factor that ____ the growth of organisms.
50.Coral reefs have a range of tolerance of roughly 20–28 °C. What is the lower limit of this temperature range in °C?
Easy
51.Complete the sentence about coral reef formation.
Medium
Coral polyps secrete ____ ____, which builds up in layers to form a hard outer structure.
52.What term describes a species that is adapted to survive in dry conditions?
Medium
53.State two adaptations that you would expect marram grass to have in order to aid survival on sand dunes.
Medium
54.Explain how climate change may affect the distribution of mangrove habitat.
Hard
55.Explain why desert biome species share similar features despite living in different parts of the world.
Hard
56.Explain how the rolled leaves of marram grass help it to survive in dry conditions.
Hard
57.Explain how mangrove trees are adapted to survive in water-logged soil with low oxygen availability.
Hard
58.Coral reefs have a range of tolerance of roughly 20–28 °C, though they grow best above 23 °C. What is the upper limit of this temperature range in °C?
Medium
- A34 °C
- B31 °C
- C28 °C
- D25 °C
59.Coral reefs have a range of tolerance of roughly 20–28 °C. What is the upper limit of this temperature range in °C?
Medium
- A28 °C
- B25 °C
- C34 °C
- D31 °C
60.Mangrove trees grow best in a salinity range between 3 and 27 parts per thousand (ppt). What is the lower limit of this optimal range in ppt?
Medium
- A4 ppt
- B5 ppt
- C3 ppt
- D2 ppt
61.Coral reefs have a range of tolerance of roughly 20–28 °C. What is the lower limit of this temperature range in °C?
Easy
- A24 °C
- B18 °C
- C22 °C
- D20 °C

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